POLECATS: CHARACTERISTICS, BEHAVIOR, SPECIES, REPRODUCTION

POLECATS AND FERRETS

European polecats

Polecat is a common name for several species of mustelid, which also include weasels, minks, otters, badgers and wolverines. Polecats do not form a single taxonomic rank (i.e. clade). The name is applied to several species with broad similarities to European polecats, such as having a dark mask-like marking across the face. In the United States, the term polecat is sometimes applied to black-footed ferrets, a near-extinct American mustelid. Despite their common name, polecats are more closely related to dogs than to cats. [Source: Wikipedia]

Polecats are lean, muscular, slender weasel-like creatures with short legs and a "bounding" gait that is faster and more efficient than it appears. Their skulls are slightly "boxy" and more canine in appearance that those of the other weasels; their faces more closely resemble minks than weasels. Like these mustelids, polecats display a "key-lock" formation of the jaw, where the articulation between the dentary and the rest of the skull is nearly sealed off into a permanent hinge and is very difficult to separate even after death. This gives polecats an amazingly tenacious grip during fights, hunting, and play. Polecats and ferrets can be lifted and suspended by whatever they are gripping with their teeth. [Source: Barbara Lundrigan and Molly Conley, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Ferrets (Mustela furo) are a small, domesticated mustelid species. They most likely are a domesticated form of the wild European polecat (Mustela putorius). Ferrets and European polcats can interbreed produce hybrid offspring. Ferrets resemble polecats and other mustelids because of their long, slender bodies. Including their tail, the average length of a ferret is about 50 cm (20 in); they weigh between 0.7 and 2.0 kg (1.5 and 4.4 lb); and their fur can be black, brown, white, or a mixture of those colors. The species is sexually dimorphic, with males being considerably larger than females.

Black-footed ferret are also known as American polecats and prairie dog hunter. Native to central North America, they are roughly the size of a mink and similar in appearance to European polecats and Asian steppe polecats. They are largely nocturnal and solitary, except when breeding or raising offspring. Up to 90 percent of their diet is composed of prairie dogs. Black-footed ferrets were wrongly declared extinct twice. All living members are descended from seven individuals. In December 2020, Elizabeth Ann was cloned from the cells of a ferret that lived more than 30 years earlier. [Source: Mark Madison, The Herald-Mail, January 16, 2022]

Musteleids

Polecats are mustelids (Mustelidae), a diverse family of carnivoran mammals, including weasels, badgers, otters, stoats, mink, sables, ermine, fishers, ferrets, polecats, martens, grisons, wolverines, hog badgers, honey badgers and ferret badgers. Also known as mustelids, they make up the largest family within Carnivora with about 66 to 70 species in eight or nine subfamilies and 22 genera. Skunks were considered a subfamily within Mustelidae, but recent molecular evidence has led their removal from the mustelid group. They are now recognized as a their own single family, Mephitidae. [Source: Wikipedia, Matt Wund, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

black-footed ferret

Mustelids have razor-sharp teeth, and most are primarily carnivorous. Some of the smaller species, however, are quite omnivorous, and supplement their diet heavily with fruits and berries. A characteristic of the family is powerful anal scent glands that are used to mark territory and as a form of communication among individuals in a breeding population. The most formidable members of the family are the wolverines, which hold their own in fights against lynxes, wolves and even bears. Mink, sable and ermine are valued for their luxurious fur. The cutest and most popular members are usually the intelligent, sociable otters. Ferrets are kept as pets.

Mustelids inhabit all continents except Australia and Antarctica, and do not live on Madagascar or oceanic islands. They are found in diverse terrestrial and aquatic habitats in temperate, tropical and polar environments — in tundra, taiga (boreal forest), conifer forests, temperate forests, deserts, dune areas, savanna, grasslands, steppe, chaparral forests, tropical and temperate rainforests, scrub forests, mountains, lakes, ponds, rivers, streams. coastal brackish water, wetlands such as marshes, swamps and bogs, suburban areas, farms, orchard and areas near rivers, estuaries and intertidal (littoral) zones.

European Polecats

European polecats(European polecats) are also known as common polecats, black polecats and forest polecats. A mustelid species native to Europe, Western Asia and North Africa, they look like and are closely related to ferrets and are generally dark brown in color, with a pale underbelly and a distinctive dark mask across their face. European polecats gave a shorter, more compact body than other mustelid species and a more powerfully built skull and dentition, but are less agile. They are cute but have a bad rap because of the nasty -smelling liquid the secrete to mark their territory. They have lived up to 14 years in captivity; it has been estimated their average lifespan in the wild is six years, longer than most weasels. [Source: Wikipedia]

range of European polecats

European polecats range throughout Europe south of the Arctic Circle but are rare in the British Isles, due to human pressure, but seem to be increasing in numbers in recent years. Their range extends eastward in western Ukraine and covers much of European Russia. They have been introduced to New Zealand and Australia. European polecats prefer to live along bodies of fresh water, in wetlands, on the edge of forests, or in grasslands with islands of scrub trees. The like to have water nearby and enough cover to hide in so they can ambush prey. [Source: Barbara Lundrigan and Molly Conley, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

European polecats are not endangered. They are designated as a species of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and have no special status on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). European polecats help humans by controlling rodent population and are the ancestors of domesticated ferrets. European polecats have been hunted and trapped, which is considered valuable, but not as much as some other mustelids such as mink or ermine. On the negative side European polecats can carry rabies, distemper and the common cold. They occasionally raid poultry farms and are known for killing more than they can eat — something they and drag the rest off for later. |=|

European Polecat Characteristics and Diet

European polecats vary greatly in size and do not conform to Bergmann's rule (animals tend to be larger in colder environments and smaller in warmer ones), with the pattern of size variation appearing to increase as one moves from east to west. European polecats range in weight from 205 to 1710 grams (less than half pound to almost four pounds. Sexual Dimorphism (differences between males and females) is very much present: Males can weigh up to twice as much as females and be a third or more longer. Males have a head and body length of 35 to 460 centimeters (14 to 18 inches), with a 11.5–16.7 centimeter tail. . Females have a head and body length of length of 29 to 39.4 centimeters (11 to 16 inches), with a 8.4–15 centimeter tail. Adult males in central Europe weigh 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to 3.3 pound) and and females weigh .65 to .81 kilograms (1.4 to 1.8 pounds). Very large polecats and believed to be products of polecat-mink hybridization. [Source: Wikipedia; Barbara Lundrigan and Molly Conley, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

European polecats have a coat of creamy-colored underfur with black guardhairs. In winter, their coat is thick, smooth and glossy. In summer, after biannual molting, the coat is thin and faded and loses the luster of the winter coat. Polecats have a raccoon-like dark mask around their eyes, surrounded by a white face and white-tipped ears.

European polecats are primarily carnivores (eat meat or animal parts) and mostly eat terrestrial vertebrates. Animal foods include birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, eggs, insects and non-insect arthropods such as spiders. Among the plant foods they eat are fruit. European usually prey on rodents and rabbits. Like some weasels they can take down rabbits much larger than themselves. Their most common prey in the former Soviet Union are common voles and sometimes red-backed voles. In Central Europe, their diet in winter months is dominated by birds including quail, grey partridges, grouse, chickens, pigeons and passerines. In Britain, they commonly kill brown rats and European rabbits. When mammals become scarce, polecats will eat insects and fruit but these food are harder for polecats to digest than wolves or bears.

European Polecat Behavior and Reproduction

European polecats are terricolous (live on the ground), nocturnal (active at night), motile (move around as opposed to being stationary) and sedentary (remain in the same area). Most mustelids are solitary and that is the case with polecats unless females have a litter and males and female come together to nate. Polecats strongly defend their territory. They are primarily nocturnal but sometimes females with young have forage during the day. [Source: Barbara Lundrigan and Molly Conley, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

European polecats sense and communicate with vision, touch, sound and chemicals usually detected by smelling. Their sense of vision is not very acute; they rely mainly on their sense of smell to track and kill prey. Like all mustelids, polecats have a pair of anal glands that emit a strong-smelling secretion. When polecats are excited or threatened they release these secretions.

European polecats are polygynandrous (promiscuous), with both males and females having multiple partners and engage in seasonal breeding. Births occur once a year and the breeding season occurring during the winter. The average gestation period is 42 days. The number of offspring is usually three to seven. Females come into estrus during late winter. Males in nearby territories may compete for access to reproductive females. Copulation appears violent, males grab females by the back of the neck and drag her back and forth until she is completely limp. |=|

Parental care is provided by females. Usually one litter is produced each year, though, if that one is lost, it is possible for the female to give birth again that season. Young are altricial, meaning they are relatively underdeveloped at birth and are weaned after one month. Independence on average occurs at three months when young reach adult size. On average males and females reach sexual or reproductive maturity at six months.

Steppe Polecats

Steppe polecats (Mustela eversmanii) are also known as white or masked polecats. They are a species of mustelid (weasels, badgers, otters, polecats and martens) native to the Eurasia steppes that stretch from Eastern Europe across Central Asia to East Asia. On the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List they are listed as a species of Least Concern. As they have a wide distribution, live in protected areas, and can tolerate habitat modification. [Source: Wikipedia

steppe polecat

Steppe polecats inhabit a variety of moderately dry habitats, including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields and tend to avoid forested habitats They live throughout Russia. In Central Asia they are found in northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and northern and western China. In eastern Europe they reside in Romania, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bosnia, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. Steppe polecats shelter in burrows, hollow trees, dense vegetation, rock crevices, or abandoned buildings during the day, even known to take shelter in the burrows of their prey. [Source: Eric Dubbelde, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Steppe polecats have long slender bodies like other species in the Mustela genus. They range in weight from 1.35 to two kilograms (3 to 4.4 pounds) and have a head and body length that ranges from 29 to 56 centimeters (11 to 22 inches). They generally light yellowish in color, with dark limbs and a dark mask across the face. Compared to its relative, the European polecat, the steppe polecat is larger in size and has a more powerfully built skull. Steppe polecats generally have dark fur on their back that becomes progressively lighter toward their undersides. Sexual Dimorphism (differences between males and females) is not present: Both sexes are roughly equal in size and look similar. The lifespan of steppe polecats has not been documented. Close relatives, ferrets, live from four to five years in the wild and eight to 10 years in captivity. /=\

Steppe polecats are nocturnal (active at night), and do most of their hunting at night. Rodents, make up nearly 80 percent of their diet and the occasionally feed on birds, reptiles, insects, and fruit. Sometimes they cache prey carcasses in their burrow for later consumption. The main predator of steppe polecats is humans, who have hunted them for food and fur. For defense polecats emit a foul odor secreted from the anal scent glands. Steppe polecats can carry Yersinia pestis, the bacterium known that cause the plague but they rarely come in contact with humans.

Steppe Polecat Behavior and Reproduction

steppe polecat range

Steppe polecats are terricolous (live on the ground), fossorial (engaged in a burrowing life-style or behavior, and good at digging or burrowing), nocturnal (active at night), motile (move around as opposed to being stationary), sedentary (remain in the same area), territorial (defend an area within the home range) and colonial (live together in groups or in close proximity to each other). Females especially tend to stay in the same burrow for many years. Males occasionally browse other burrows in search for estrous females. While hunting, individuals leave their burrows and may travel up to 18 kilometers in one night in search of food. [Source: Eric Dubbelde, Animal Diversity Web (ADW)]

During the breeding season steppe polecats live in breeding colonies consisting of multiple mated pairs and their young. Unmated males associate primarily with other bachelors, and male-female interactions are limited to the breeding season Steppe polecats are very agile and can leap up to one meter in the air and appear to follow a random walk pattern when searching for prey. They prefer to stay near the same burrow but local migrations may occur due to deep snow or lack of food.

Steppe polecats sense and communicate with vision, touch, sound and chemicals usually detected by smelling. They depend a great deal on their sense of hearing and smell when hunting and also employ pheromones (chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species) and scent marks produced by special glands and placed so others can smell and taste them. When threatened or excited, these polecats secrete the foul odor from their anal gland, which they also use to mark territorial boundaries, and when sensing danger. They also employ visual and auditory signals. When threatened, their hair stands erect and they may stare, snap, bite, hiss, or scream to deter a potential threat. Males use vocalizations to attract potential mates and to indicate dominance. Pups use a variety of vocalizations to communicate with mothers and siblings.

Steppe polecats are polygynous (males have more than one female as a mate at one time). They engage in seasonal breeding in March and April. Females usually only breed once a year but if they lose their litters to predation of disease they may attempt to produce another litter later in the year. The gestation period ranges from 38 to 41 days. The number of offspring ranges from eight to 10. Parental care is provided by females. The average weaning age is 1.5 months and the average time to independence is three months. Pups weigh approximately four to six grams at birth. Pups begin to open their eyes at one month old. After weaning, pups begin hunting with their mother. On average males and females reach sexual or reproductive maturity at nine months.

Marbled Polecats

marbled polecat range

Marbled polecats (Vormela peregusna) are the only living members of genus Vormela within the mustelid subfamily Ictonychinae, which contains grisons, Patagonian weasels, striped polecatss, and African striped weasels. Marbled polecats are generally found in drier areas and grasslands of Eurasian, form southeastern Europe to western China. Like other mustelids, they can emit a strong-smelling secretion from anal sacs under the tail when threatened. [Source: Wikipedia]

Marbled polecats are found in areas of southeast Europe, particularly in former Yugoslavoa, Turkey, parts of the Middle East, Central Asia and as far east as Mongolia and China. Mostly they are found south of Russia, with the exception of the part of Russia between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. For the most part, Marbled polecats are rare across their considerable range. In the Middle East, they occur in highest densities in Israel. [Source: Tyler Petroelje, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Marbled polecat inhabit many habitats within their range — steppes (treeless prairies), semi-deserts, deserts, dune areas, grasslands, scrub forests, agricultural areas and areas near rivers and water bodies. In former Yugoslavia, they are riparian areas near water and mountain meadows. At southern edge of their range in Egypt they can be found in sandy areas with some vegetation. They have been found at elevations up to 3,000 meters (9,842 feet). |=|

On the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List marbled polecats are listed as Vulnerable. In CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild) they have no special status. Marbled polecat population have declined in many areas of their range, where they were already uncommon to begin with. Habitat destruction, desertification, the changing of natural habitat to farmland, human reduction of rodent populations, road traffic and hunting have been blamed for the decline.

marbled polecat range

Marbled polecat fur has little value and the animals were never really hunted or trapped for that reason. In the past they were kept in shops to help control problem rodents in Kabul, Afghanistan. On rare occasions they have been kept as pets. Marbled polecats may prey on poultry and may also take cheese and meat from humans. A half dozen or so marbled polecat subspecies have been suggested, mostly based on pelage and regional variations. Although they are scattered over a large geographic area, different populations have the same genetic makeup remain. This is possibly due to their historically recent expansion. Their lifespan in captivity has been up to 8.9 years.

Marbled Polecat Characteristics and Diet

Marbled polecats range from 44.1 to 65.5 centimeters (17.4 to 25.8 inches) in length, including the tail. Their Head and body length ranges from 28.8 to 47.7 centimeters (11.3 to 18.8 inches), and their tail is 14.5 to 20 centimeters (5.7 to 8 inches) in length. Sexual Dimorphism (differences between males and females) is present: Males are largerthan females. Females range in weight from 295 to 600 grams; Males range in weight from male 320 to 715 grams. [Source: Tyler Petroelje, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Marbled polecats have a unique coat that distinguishes them from their relatives, striped polecats, which are black with white stipes, and European polecats, which are mostly brown. Marbled polecats have a black-brown underbelly and white round ears that stand out above their head sort of like Mickey Mouse ears. Their "marbled" back is colored by black-brown, yellow-orange, and red coat patterns that bring to mind the patterning on a gila monster.

Marbled polecats have short legs and long claws used for digging burrows and for digging out prey. Claws on their front limbs are longer, up to 16.7 millimeters, than claws on their hind limbs. They have 34 sharp teeth that also assist in capturing prey. Marbled polecats have a long furry, black-and-yellow tail. A large white band extends across their forehead. A black mask covers their eyes area.

Marbled polecats are generalist and opportunistic carnivores (eat meat or animal parts) and mostly eat terrestrial vertebrates. Animal foods include small mammals, birds, amphibians reptiles and insects. Prey includes a range of rodents such as great gerbils, house mice, ground squirrels, Hunting strategies depend on the size and defensive strategies of prey. Marbled polecats like approach their prey from the side and bite small prey on their midsection and large prey on the back of the neck. If their prey struggles, the throat is often targeted.

Marbled Polecat Behavior

Marbled polecats are crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk), motile (move around as opposed to being stationary), territorial (defend an area within the home range) and solitary. Their home territories range from 0.5 to 0.6 square kilometers. Marbled polecats move about extensively within their home range and aggressively defend it from other polecats and other animals. They will stand their ground even when humans approach. [Source: Tyler Petroelje, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Marbled polecats generally only tolerate the opposite sex during mating season. Their activities during the day are limited; they spend most of their time in a sheltered place unless they are basking in the sunlight. In captivity, they find dark places to rest during the day. Marbled polecats dig dens themselves, but also use den systems of their prey, such as large ground squirrels or great gerbils. Sometime marbled polecats use dens for storing food. Marbled polecats normally do not climb or jump, though they can sit or stand on their hind legs. When threatened, they put on a display of aggression by standing their fur on end, arching their back, and raising their tail. They also hiss aggressively, emit long shrieks of submission and may release foul- smelling secretions from their anal glands.

Marbled polecats sense and communicate with vision, sound and chemicals usually detected by smelling. Marbled polecats have a keen sense of smell and leave scent marks produced by special glands and placed so others can smell and taste them. Vocalizations include alarm cries, grunts, and shrieks of submission. When threatened they may bare their teeth while growling or hissing.

Marbled Polecats Mating, Reproduction and Offspring

Marbled polecats are solitary, but males and females come together during the mating season that runs from March to June. They employ delayed implantation (a condition in which a fertilized egg reaches the uterus but delays its implantation in the uterine lining, sometimes for several months). The gestation period is around 40 to 56 days but can be as long as 327 days when delayed implantation is used. The number of offspring ranges from four to eight. [Source: Tyler Petroelje, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Parental care is provided by females. Marbeled polecat cubs are born in late January to early March with their eyes closed and may stay with their mother into June. Young are be able to eat solid food before their eyes open at 38 to 40 days. At 50 to 54 days they young are weaned and disperse after 61 to 68 days before they are fully grown. The cubs reach full size around 82 days of age. Predatory behavior occurs at an early age.

Females mate during their first spring and are able to carry young the following winter. Males reach sexual maturity around one year of age and find mates after their first year. Delayed implantation allows female marbled polecats to select the best environmental conditions in which to give birth. Although cubs feed from their mother until they are weaned, they display predatory behavior.

Domestic Ferrets

Ferrets (Mustela furo) are small, domesticated mustelids. There is evidence of domestic ferrets in Europe over 2500 years ago. They were likely domesticated from European polecats and it seems likely that captive and wild ferrets and polecats interbreed. It is also plausible that ferrets were first domesticated because they hunted rodents and were kept by humans to control rodent pests. That is the scenario on how cats were initially domesticated. In Europe, people have traditionally used ferrets for a kind of hunting known as ferreting in which rabbits and other small game were targeted. There are record of ferrets being used to control rodent populations on ships during the American revolutionary war.[Source: Jessica Duda, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) |=|]

Domestic ferrets reach their adult size at one year old. Females weigh from 0.3 to 1.1 kilograms and are 33 to 35.5 centimeters long. Males are 38 to 40.6 centimeters long. Average tail length is 7.6 to 10 centimeters. Domestic ferrets have large canine teeth and 34 teeth total. Each paw has a set of five, non-retractable claws. As pets, they generally live from six to 10 years.

Currently domestic ferrets are found around the world in homes as pets. They do not survive long in the wild.There are ferret breeders and ferret farms that raise ferrets for the pet trade, and many pet shops carry ferrets to sell. There are many products that cater to pet ferrets including ferret food, ferret toys, ferret cages and ferret beds. Domestic ferrets have been bred for a large variety of fur colors and patterns. The seven common fur colors are called: sable, silver, black sable, albino, dark-eyed white, cinnamon, and chocolate. The most common of these colors is sable. Examples of pattern types are: Siamese or pointed patterned, panda, Shetlands, badgers, and blazes. |=|

Domestic ferrets are natural carnivores, and require a meat-like diet. Food for domestic ferrets should contain taurine and be composed of at least 20 percent fat and 34 percent animal protein. Most domestic ferrets are fed manufactured ferret, cat, or dog food. Domestic ferrets often sleep 18-20 hours per day. They are naturally active at dawn and dusk are playful and fastidious. They often interact with other pet ferrets, cats, and dogs in a friendly manner. They can be taught tricks and have an instinct to habitually urinate and defecate in the same places, and therefore can be trained to use a litter box.

Domestic ferrets use a variety of body language, some of which have been labeled dancing, wrestling, and stalking. They ‘dance’ when they are happy and excited, hopping in every direction. Wrestling is a behavior that includes two or more ferrets. They roll around with each other, biting and kicking, usually in a playful manner. Stalking is sneaking up on a toy or other animal in a low crouched position.

Polecats and relatives: On following pages: 21) Lesser Grison (Galictis cuja); 22) Greater Grison (Galictis vittata), 23) Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna); 24) Saharan Striped Polecat (/ctonyx libycus); 25) Zorilla (Ictonyx striatus); 26) African Striped Weasel (Poecilogale albinucha)

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Animal Diversity Web animaldiversity.org ; National Geographic, Live Science, Natural History magazine, David Attenborough books, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Discover magazine, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Wikipedia, The Guardian, Top Secret Animal Attack Files website and various books and other publications.

Last updated June 2025