MAJOR VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS: DEATHS, BOMBING, LAKI, EL CHICHON, THE MEXICAN CORNFIELD

DANGEROUS VOLCANOES

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Pelee, Martinique, 1902 There are about 1,500 active volcanoes in the world today (not counting hundreds of undersea volcanoes). They are defined as volcanoes that have erupted in the last 10,000 years. An estimated half a billion people live within 60 miles of these volcanoes. Most are located on the same faults that produce earthquakes.

The world's dangerous volcanoes (as judged by their potential for a dangerous eruption and nearness to major population areas): 1) Merapi (Indonesia); 2) Taal (Philippines); 3) Unzen (Japan); 4) Sakurajima (Japan); 5) Ulawun (Papua New Guinea); 6) Mauna Loa (the United States); 7) Rainier (the United States); 8) Colima (Mexico); 9) Santa Maria/ Santiaguito (Guatemala); 10) Galeras (Columbia); 11) Teide (Canary Islands); 12) Vesuvius (Italy); 13) Etna (Italy); 14) Santorini (Greece); 15) Niragongo (Zaire). [Source: International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior]

Volcanologists rank large eruptions as: Level 5) like the ones at Mount St. Helens in 1980 and Mt. Vesuvius in the A.D. 1st century that occur every 10 years and release less than a hundred cubic kilometers of material; Level 6) like the ones at Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatau in 1883 that occur every 100 years and release more than a hundred cubic kilometers of material; Level 7) like the one at Tambora in Indonesia in 1815 that occur every 1,000 years and release more than a 1,000 cubic kilometers of material; and Level 8) like the ones at Toba 750,000 years ago and Yellowstone 2.1 million years ago that occur every 50,000 to 100,000 and release 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers of material. The largest volcanic event known is an eruption in Colorado 28 million years ago that released more than 5,000 cubic kilometers of material. A Level 8 is regarded as a supervolcano. The threat posed by a supervolcano is regarded as worse and ten times more likely to happen than an asteroid impact. If one were to occur today it could kill millions with the initial eruption and kill perhaps billions if a natural “nuclear winter” were triggered.

Websites and Sources on Volcanoes: USGS Volcanoes volcanoes.usgs.gov ; Volcano World volcano.oregonstate.edu ; Volcanoes.com volcanoes.com ; Volcano Tourism volcanolive.com ;Wikipedia Volcano article Wikipedia , Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program volcano.si.edu operated by the Smithsonian has descriptions of volcanoes around the globe and a catalog of over 8,000 eruptions in the last 10,000 years.; Volcano Pictures Volcano Photo Gallery decadevolcano.net/photos ; Archive of Volcano Photos doubledeckerpress.com Book: “Volcanoes in Human History” by Jelle Zeilinga de Boer and Donald Theodore Sanders (Princeton University Press, 2002)

Biggest Volcanic Eruptions in Recorded History

Taupo (New Zealand) produced the Hatepe eruption around A.D. 130, which according to the Guinness Book of Records, was the most violent volcanic eruption in recorded history. It produced an estimated 33 billion tons (30 billion metric tons) of pumice that moved at speeds of up to 400 miles per hour (644 kilometers per hour) and flattened an area of about 6,200 square miles (16,100 square kilometers). Less than 25 percent of the material fell within 125 miles (201 kilometers) of the crater, which is now occupied by 606 square kilometers (234 square miles) Lake Taupo. Volcanic dust from the explosion circled the globe and affected weather as far away as China and Rome. No people lived in New Zealand at the time; Polynesian seafarers did not settle the country until more than 1,000 years later.

Mount Tambora (Indonesia) produced the largest volcanic eruption in the last few hundred years, reaching VEI 7, the second-highest level on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The eruption peaked in April 1815, and its explosions were reportedly heard on Sumatra, more than 1,900 kilometers (1,200 miles) away. Pyroclastic flows and other direct effects killed an estimated 11,000 or more people. The eruption also released large quantities of volcanic material into the atmosphere, disrupting agriculture and contributing to food shortages that continued for years. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the resulting famine and related effects ultimately caused an estimated 100,000 deaths. [Source: Tia Ghose, Live Science, June 10, 2023]

Thera (Greek island of Santorini) created one of the largest volcanic events of the ancient world. Geologists estimate that its explosive force was equivalent to several hundred atomic bombs released in a fraction of a second. The eruption was estimated to have been four or five times more powerful than Krakatoa's 1883 explosion and dramatically altered the island's landscape, leaving a large caldera. Although no written descriptions of the eruption survive, the island was inhabited at the time, and some archaeological evidence suggests residents may have evacuated before the explosion. The eruption may have severely disrupted the Minoan civilization through tsunamis and climate changes associated with sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere.

Krakatoa (Indonesia) is a volcanic island in Indonesia located along a subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate meets the Eurasian Plate. After weeks and months of increasing activity, the volcano produced enormous explosions on August 26 and 27, 1883. The final blast was among the loudest sounds ever recorded and was reportedly audible across approximately 10 percent of Earth's surface. The eruption generated a tsunami with maximum wave heights of about 40 meters (140 feet), killing approximately 36,000 people. The island that hosted the original volcano was largely destroyed, but eruptions beginning in December 1927 built a new volcanic cone, Anak Krakatau, meaning “Child of Krakatau,” within the resulting caldera.

Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai (Tonga), an underwater volcano began erupting in December 2021, with the main eruption starting on January 13, 2022, and reaching its climax on January 15. Seawater that came into contact with magma was rapidly superheated, contributing to an explosive eruption that injected an estimated 45 million metric tons (50 million U.S. tons) of water vapor into the atmosphere. The blast extended approximately 260 kilometers (162 miles), and an ash, steam, and gas plume rose about 20 kilometers (12 miles) into the atmosphere, the tallest volcanic plume recorded at the time. NASA estimated that the explosion released energy equivalent to more than 100 Hiroshima atomic bombs.

Novarupta (southern Alaska) produced the largest volcanic explosion of the 20th century in 1912. Associated with the Trident volcanic complex on the Alaska Peninsula, the eruption released approximately 12.5 cubic kilometers (3 cubic miles) of magma and ash. Volcanic ash covered about 7,800 square kilometers (3,000 square miles), with deposits exceeding 30 centimeters (1 foot) in some areas. In Kodiak, approximately 160 kilometers (100 miles) away, ash made the air so dark that a lantern held at arm's length was barely visible for about 60 hours. Pyroclastic flows created the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, a landscape marked by volcanic deposits and numerous steam-emitting vents known as fumaroles.

Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) is a stratovolcano on the island of Luzon, that erupted explosively in 1991. The volcano lies along a subduction zone associated with the Philippine and Eurasian plates. The eruption expelled more than 5 cubic kilometers (1 cubic mile) of material and produced an ash column that reached approximately 35 kilometers (22 miles) into the atmosphere. Ash fell across surrounding areas, accumulating on roofs and causing some buildings to collapse under its weight. The eruption also released millions of tons of sulfur dioxide and other particles that spread around the world and reduced global temperatures by approximately 0.5 degrees Celsius (1 degree Fahrenheit) over the following year. Despite occurring in a densely populated region, the eruption caused fewer deaths than might otherwise have occurred because of evacuation planning and continuous monitoring.

Huaynaputina (Peru) produced South America's largest recorded volcanic eruption in 1600. The explosion generated mudflows that traveled as far as 120 kilometers (75 miles) toward the Pacific Ocean and deposited ash across approximately 50 square kilometers (20 square miles) west of the volcano. The ash-covered area remains visibly affected today. The eruption also appears to have influenced global climate, with summers following the event among the coldest in five centuries. Nearby cities, including Arequipa and Moquegua, suffered extensive damage and took more than a century to recover fully, according to the Smithsonian Institution. Although Huaynaputina reaches approximately 4,850 meters (15,900 feet), its position along the edge of a deep canyon makes it less conspicuous than many other volcanoes.

Santa María (Guatemala) is a stratovolcano that produced one of the largest volcanic explosions of the 20th century. Before the eruption, the volcano had remained relatively quiet for approximately 500 years. The 1902 explosion created a crater nearly 1.5 kilometers (1 mile) across on the volcano's southwestern flank. Santa María forms part of a chain of stratovolcanoes along Guatemala's Pacific coastal plain. The volcano remained active after the major eruption, with another significant event occurring in 1922, classified as VEI 3.

Ilopango (central El Salvador) a short distance east of the capital, San Salvador. It produced a major eruption around A.D. 431. The eruption blanketed much of central and western El Salvador with pumice and ash and destroyed early settlements, forcing inhabitants to flee, according to the Smithsonian Institution. A 2020 study published in the journal PNAS dated the eruption and estimated that it caused global cooling of approximately 0.5 degrees Celsius (0.9 degrees Fahrenheit) for several years. The eruption may also have disrupted trade routes and contributed to changes in settlement patterns among Maya communities, including a shift from highland areas of El Salvador toward lowland regions farther north and in Guatemala. The volcano's summit caldera now contains one of El Salvador's largest lakes.

Kikai-Akahoya — the Largest Eruption in the Last 10,000 Years

About 7,300 years ago, the Kikai-Akahoya eruption occurred at an underwater volcano south of Japan’s Kyushu Island, releasing an estimated 80 to 110 cubic miles (332 to 457 cubic kilometers) of volcanic material. A 2024 study concluded that it was probably the largest volcanic eruption of the Holocene Epoch, which began about 11,700 years ago at the end of the last ice age and continues today. The estimated volume was more than twice that of the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, previously considered one of the largest historical eruptions. The Kikai volcano lies in a region where the Philippine Sea Plate descends beneath the Eurasian Plate. [Source: Sascha Pare, Live Science, February 29, 2024]

Scientists had known about the ancient eruption but had difficulty determining its full size because much of the volcanic material was deposited underwater. In a study published online on February 1, 2024, in the Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, researchers used seismic data to map the seabed around the volcano. They then collected sediment cores from several locations by drilling into the seabed with a remotely operated vehicle. The samples revealed extensive deposits containing volcanic glass whose composition and age matched the Kikai-Akahoya eruption.

The underwater deposits covered an estimated 1,740 square miles (4,500 square kilometers). Researchers calculated that the volcanic glass and other debris in these deposits represented approximately 17 cubic miles (71 cubic kilometers) of material expelled into the sea, nearly twice the amount estimated in earlier studies. By combining these findings with existing estimates of volcanic deposits on land, the researchers calculated that the eruption produced a total of 80 to 110 cubic miles (332 to 457 cubic kilometers) of material. This revised estimate established the eruption as probably the largest of the Holocene.

Tim Druitt, a professor of volcanology at Clermont Auvergne University in France who reviewed the study, told Live Science that the research substantially improved scientific understanding of the eruption. He agreed that the conclusion that Kikai-Akahoya was the largest Holocene eruption was valid. The Minoan eruption of Santorini in the eastern Mediterranean had previously been proposed as the largest eruption of the period, but subsequent research indicated that it was smaller.

Supervolcanos

The single worst explosion in our geological history occurred at Lake Toba, about 160 kilometers from the epicenter of the 2004 tsunami-producing earthquake. It occurred 74,000 year ago and produced a caldera 100 kilometers long. The Toba super-eruption was the biggest volcanic blast on Earth in the past 2.5 million years, and probably further back than that as well. There were also massive eruptions at Yellowstone 640,000, 1.3 million and 2.1 million years ago. Some theorize that the Toba eruption came close to wiping homo sapiens. They argue the human population shrunk to a few thousand after the event (See Below).

Researchers estimate some 2,000-3,000 cubic environmental of rock and ash were ejected from the volcano when it exploded. It was only in 1929 that a Dutch geologist recognized the lake as a caldera. A caldera is essentially a great hole that occurs in the Earth’s surface after a great amount of material has been removed by a massive volcanic eruption. The central part of Yellowstone National Park is caldera—measuring 35-by-45-mile (60-by-70-kilometer)—about the same size as Lake Toba. Eruptions that leave calderas are rare. The one at Toba seems occur every a 400,000 years or so. [Source: Joel Achenbach, National Geographic, March 2005]

According to volcano.oregonstate.edu: “The caldera is 18 x 60 miles (30 by 100 kilometers) and has a total relief of 5,100 feet (1700 m). The caldera probably formed in stages. Large eruptions occurred 840,000, about 700,000, and 75,000 years ago. The eruption 75,000 years ago produced the Young Toba Tuff. The Young Toba Tuff was erupted from ring fractures that surround most or all of the present-day lake. Samosir Island and the Uluan Peninsula are parts of one or two resurgent domes. Lake sediments on Samosir indicate at least 1,350 feet (450 meters) of uplift. Pusukbukit, a small stratovolcano along the west margin of the caldera, formed after the eruption 75,000 years ago. There are active solfataras on the north side of the volcano. [Source: volcano.oregonstate.edu /^]

The most catastrophic ancient event since the Toba eruption was the Ōruanui eruption of the Taupō volcano in New Zealand around 26,500 years ago. Ejecting vast volumes of ash and pumice, it caused the land to collapse, creating the enormous caldera that now holds Lake Taupō. Taupō erupted again around 232 CE in a violent explosion that devastated the surrounding central North Island, burning landscapes for miles and sending ash high into the atmosphere.

Yellowstone National Park in the United States is regarded as a supervolcano. It lies above a volcanic system that has produced three major VEI 8 eruptions, approximately 2.1 million, 1.2 million, and 640,000 years ago. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, these catastrophic events expelled enormous quantities of ash and volcanic material, with the combined deposits sufficient to fill the Grand Canyon. The most recent of the three eruptions formed the large caldera that now spans approximately 48 by 72 kilometers (30 by 45 miles). Yellowstone has not experienced another eruption of this scale in recorded human history. Although the volcanic system remains active, scientists have found no indication that another giant eruption is imminent. [Source: Tia Ghose, Live Science, June 10, 2023]

Deadliest Volcanic Eruptions

1) Mt. Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia, April 10-12, 1815 (92,000)
2) Krakatoa, Indonesia, August 26-28, 1883 (36,000)
3) Mt. Pelée, Martinique, May 8, 1902 (28,000)
4) Nevado del Ruíz, Colombia, November 13, 1985 (23,000)
5) Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, August 24, 79 AD (16,000)
6) Mt. Unzen, Japan, May 21, 1792 (14,500)
7) Kelut, Java, Indonesia, 1586 (10,000)
8) Laki, Iceland, June 8, 1783 (9,350)
9) Mt. Kelut, Java, Indonesia, May 19, 1919 (5,000)
10) Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, December 15, 1631 (4,000)
11) Mt. Papandayan, Java, Indonesia, August 12, 1772 (3,000)
12) Mt. Lamington, Papua New Guinea, January 17-21, 1951 (3,000)
13) El Chichón, Mexico, May 28, 1982 (1,800)
14) Lake Nyos, Cameroon, August 21, 1986 (1,700)
15) Huaynaputina, Peru, February 1600 (1,500+)
16) Mount Asama, Japan, August 1783 (1,400 to 1,624)
17) Mount Merapi, Indonesia, December 1930 (1,369)
18) Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, March 1845 (1,000+)
19) Santa Maria, Guatemala, April 24, 1902 (1,000)

20) Mt. Pinatubo, Luzon, Philippines, June 15, 1991 (800)
21) Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, March 1595 (636+)
22) Mount Bandai, Japan, July 1888 (477)
23) Mount Mayon, Philippines, June-July 1897 (400+)
24) Kīlauea, Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, November 1790 (80 to 400+)
25) Mount Merapi, Indonesia, October-November 2010 (353)
26) Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala, June 2018 (215+)
27) Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand, December 1953 (151)
28) Mount Tokachi, Japan, May 1926 (144)
29) Tori-shima, Japan, August 1902 (125 to 150)
30) Mount Tarawera, New Zealand, June 1886 (108 to 120)
31) Volcán Arenal, Costa Rica, July 1968 (82)
32) Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, January 1977 (70)
33) Mount Etna, Italy, May 1843 (64)
34) Mount Ontake, Japan, September 2014 (63)
35) Mount St. Helens, United States, May 18, 1980 (57)
36) Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, January 2002 (45 to 147)
37) Anak Krakatoa, Indonesia, December 2018 (43)
38) Mount Unzen, Japan, June 1991 (43)
39) Taal, Philippines, January 2020 (39)

40) Bayonnaise Rocks, Japan, September 1952 (31)
41) Nabro Volcano, Eritrea, June 2011 (31)
42) Galunggung, Indonesia, April 1982 (28)
43) Mount Vesuvius, Italy, March 1944 (26 to 49)
44) Whakaari/White Island, New Zealand, December 2019 (22)
45) Soufrière Hills, Montserrat, June 1997 (19)
46) Sinabung, Indonesia, February 2014 (17)
47) Whakaari/White Island, New Zealand, September 1914 (10 to 12)
48) Galeras, Colombia, January 1993 (9)
49) Jebel at Tair, Yemen, September 2007 (8)
50) Pacaya, Guatemala, May 2010 (3)
51) Eldfell, Iceland, January 1973 (1 to 2)
52) Mount Hudson, Chile, August 1971 (0 direct - evacuated/indirect)
53) Mt. Taal, Philippines, January 30, 1911 (Unspecified)
54) Cotopaxi, Ecuador, June 1877 (Unspecified/Several local fatalities)
55) Makian, Indonesia, February 1861 (Several / Unquantified)
56) Dubbi, Eritrea, May 1861 (Unquantified)

Great Laki Eruption in Iceland in 1783

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Laki in Iceland According to the Guinness Book of Records, the largest lava flow ever in recorded times was produced by an eruption of Iceland's Laki volcano in 1783. The lave flowed for eight months and covered an area of more than 500 square kilometers and reached a distance 40½-to-43½ miles from its source.

One the survivors, the Reverend Jon Steingrimsson wrote, "The flood of fire flowed with the speed of great river swollen with meltwater on a spring day. In the middle of the flood of a fire great cliffs and slabs or rock were swept along, tumbling about like large whales swimming, red-hot and glowing."

The 1783 Laki eruption released a cloud of sulfuric acid that weighed 90 million tons. The eruption itself killed few people but the cloud cover the land with deadly sulfuric acid that killed 75 percent of Iceland's crops and almost all the sheep and horses. The cloud itself and the famine that it produced killed about a forth of the people on Iceland.

"Those terrors that fell over and upon us I can hardly describe," Steingrimsson wrote. "It will be for all eternity a source of the greatest wonder, that any living thing should have survived." After eruption in entire Iceland was almost evacuated.

Thera Volcanic Eruption in 1645 B.C.

In 1645 B.C., a volcano on the Greek island of Santorini erupted with such force that some believe it caused the collapse of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete, 70 miles away. Thirteen cubic miles of material exploded into the sky. Settlements on Santorini were buried under a thick layer of ash thicker than the one that covered Pompeii. [Source: William Broad, New York Times, October 21, 2003]

The main eruption was preceded by a smaller one — a shower of light pumice that buried the town of Akrortiri, down slope, under many feet of ash. This may have sent most of the residents away. No skeletons or human remains have been found on Santorini .

The main eruption began when sea water entered a vent of the volcano and mixed with magma and gases, producing an ultra-violent explosion. The center of Thera collapsed into a sea-filled caldera. Santorini was buried Pompeii-style under ash, up to 900 feet deep, that preserved frescoes and wall paintings that recorded everyday life from the period and contained Egyptian motifs.

ParicutinThe explosion produced a huge tsunami, possibly 300 feet high. This tsunami swamped and hit the coast of North Africa, sending water 200 miles up the Nile. On Crete, an 50-foot-high tsunami wiped out coastal settlements. Inland ash may have ruined crops and grass that fed livestock.

The Thera eruption may have been the largest eruption on Earth in the last 10,000 years. Some scientists have calculated was 90 times greater than the one at Mount St. Helens and four times greater than Krakatau, which killed 36,000 people . Some say it was much larger than that, perhaps even larger than Tambora, which erupted in 1816 and produced the year without summer and famines in the United States.

Massive Zavaritskii Eruption in 1831 Turned the Sun Blue

In 1831, a massive volcanic eruption released enormous quantities of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, cooling the global climate by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit) and producing unusual atmospheric effects. Reports from August described the Sun appearing green, purple, and even blue. The eruption also contributed to crop failures, food shortages, and unusually cold weather in several parts of the world. Scientists long suspected that a volcano was responsible but struggled to identify it. A study led by researchers at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland identified the culprit as Zavaritskii volcano in the Kuril Islands, northwest of Japan. The findings were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Source: Darren Orf, Popular Mechanics, January 9, 2025]

Evidence of the eruption came from microscopic volcanic ash particles preserved in polar ice cores. Researchers compared these particles with samples collected decades earlier from Zavaritskii volcano on Simushir Island, an uninhabited island in the Kuril chain. Advances in laboratory techniques allowed scientists to extract and chemically analyze ash particles roughly one-tenth the diameter of a human hair. The chemical compositions of the ice-core particles and the volcano samples matched, providing strong evidence that Zavaritskii was responsible for the 1831 eruption. Lead researcher Dr. William Hutchison described the discovery as a “genuine eureka moment,” explaining that the identical results convinced the team that it had found the source of the eruption.

The eruption's effects were reflected in contemporary accounts of unusual weather. In the summer of 1831, German composer Felix Mendelssohn traveled through the Alps and recorded cold conditions and deep snow on nearby hills. He wrote, “Desolate weather, it has rained again all night and all morning, it is as cold as in winter, there is already deep snow on the nearest hills.” Such conditions were unusual for summer and illustrated the extent of the climatic disruption. Sulfur dioxide injected high into the atmosphere can form sulfate aerosols that reflect incoming sunlight, cooling the Earth's surface. These aerosols can also scatter sunlight in ways that produce unusual colors in the sky, including reports of a blue or purple Sun.

The Zavaritskii eruption was not the only volcanic event to produce widespread climatic effects. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia contributed to the Year Without a Summer in 1816, when unusually cold conditions caused crop failures across parts of the Northern Hemisphere. In 1991, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines injected about 15 million metric tons (16.5 million U.S. tons) of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, temporarily lowering global temperatures. These events demonstrate how powerful volcanic eruptions can affect weather and agriculture far beyond the regions surrounding the volcanoes.

Identifying the source of the 1831 eruption has also highlighted the difficulties of predicting future volcanic disasters. Many potentially dangerous volcanoes are remote and poorly monitored, making it difficult to determine when a major eruption might occur. Hutchison warned that scientists and governments need to prepare for international cooperation when another large eruption takes place. Understanding the geological evidence preserved in ice cores and improving volcano monitoring could help researchers assess the risks and coordinate responses to future eruptions with global climatic consequences.

Parícutin, Volcano Emerges from a Cornfield in Mexico

Paricutín Volcano (40 miles from Uruapan, 200 miles west of Mexico City) erupted from a cornfield after an earthquake on February 20, 1943, while the owner of the field, a peasant farmer named Dionisio Pulido, and his family looked on in horror. "For quite a while a small fissure in the field had been slowly growing long," reads a description of the event in a Reader's Digest's book called Natural Wonders of the World. "Suddenly the ground began to shake . The surface of the land around the fissure rose , and a hissing cloud of ashes, smoke and sulfurous fumes began to pour from the vent. Bt evening the rising cloud of smoke was visible in [the town of Parícutin, and during the night red-hot rocks were seen shooting into the air.

"The volcano grew with amazing speed, and geologists from all over the world rushed to the site for the opportunity to study a volcano from its birth. Within 24 hours of the first eruption, the remote Mexican cornfield was covered by a cone of ash 165 feet high. Before long lava also began to escape from the vent and spread over the surrounding countryside. Within a week Paricutin's cone reached a height of about 500 feet.

"Activity continued without cease in the weeks that followed. Incandescent rocks were hurled into the air providing a constant display of fireworks, and ash from Paricutín fell as far away as Mexico City. By April an advancing lava flow forced the evacuation of Paricutín, and in June another village three miles from the volcano also had to be abandoned completely. The Indian town of Parangaricutiro was covered by a lava flow. Only a tower from the San Juan church rise above the lava.

Paricutin"Particularly violent eruptions occurred in July and August. Then in October a subsidiary vent opened on the side of the main cone and added more lave to the flood. For the next two months or so, Paritucutín remained comparatively calm while its offspring named Sapichu continued with violent eruptions. When Sapichu died down, the fireworks resumed in the main cone. By year's end Paricutín had grown to a height of about 900 feet.

"Intermittent, sometimes explosive eruptions continued in the years that followed. At times huge chunks of rock and lava were hurled from the vent and landed are far as two miles away. Activity increased notably in 1951, with dozens of explosions occurring daily. Then just as suddenly as it had begin, Paricutín's activity abruptly ended. The last lava flow died out on February 25, 1952, just 9 years, 4 days and 12 hours after the volcano first sprang to life. The rim of the crater stood 1,345 feet above the remains of Señor Pulido's cornfield. Its lava flows had covered an area of 10 square miles and had engulfed two villages and hundreds of homes."

Mt. St. Helens

On March 27, 1980, Mount St. Helens Volcano in the Cascade Range, southwestern Washington in the U.S., reawakened after more than a century of dormancy and provided a dramatic and tragic reminder that there are active volcanoes in the "lower 48" States as well as in Hawaii and Alaska. The catastrophic eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, and related mudflows and flooding caused significant loss of life (57 dead or missing) and property damage lover $1.2 billion). Mount St. Helens is expected to remain intermittently active for months or years, possibly even decades.

Lyn Garrity wrote in Smithsonian magazine: Mt. St. Helens “set off the largest landslide in recorded history. Rock slammed into Spirit Lake, sending water up the hillsides and scouring the slopes down to bedrock. Another hunk of mountain spilled 14 miles down the North Fork Toutle River, burying the valley under an average of 150 feet of sediment. A blast obliterated, toppled or singed old-growth trees as far as 20 miles away. A column of ash soared 15 miles high, falling across 22,000 square miles. Flows of gas and rock at 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit surged down the slopes, incinerating all life in a six-square-mile area now known as the pumice plain. [Source: Lyn Garrity, Smithsonian magazine, January 2012]

Mt. St. HelensThe eruption at Mount St. Helens is one of the most studied volcanic blasts and one of the few in which detailed photographs of the eruption itself exist. It was previously thought that an explosive blast from inside the mountains blew away the side of Mount St. Helens. A careful look at the photographs of the blast and the material left behind by the eruption, however, reveal that an enormous block of the mountain, including part of the summit, broke away first — perhaps jarred loose by an earthquake and pressure in the volcano — and that paved the way for the explosion.

Before the eruption at Mount St. Helens the block of mountains had acted as cork, holding the magma in the mountain. Its sudden removal depressurized the magma, causing a violent, sideways, explosion of rock, gas and ash. The blast destroyed everything in its path over a 180 degree, 230 square kilometers area. A fast-moving avalanche caused by collapsing mountain swept into Spirit Lake, causing an 850-foot-high tsunami that rose above the shore, scouring the mountainside down to the bedrock. The avalanche itself was so large it traveled down into a valley and then up over a ridge.

The horseshoe-shape crater left behind at Mt. St. Helens is found on other volcanoes, suggesting that these kinds of events are not uncommon. Examples of mountain collapse have found on more that 400 volcanoes in a variety of locations worldwide and are now regarded as the most common cause of large-scale eruptions. The destructive potential of these eruptions are higher now than ever because so many people lie on the path of a destructive blast or avalanche.

El Chichón Eruption in 1982

For most of this century El Chichón was an unremarkable jungle-covered 3900-foot hill in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico. Then, on April 4, 1982 it erupted sending a column of ash, rocks, and half of El Chichón, hurling 20 miles into sky. It was estimated than area equivalent to 100-kilometer-thick football field was ejected from the mountain. This was less than Mt. St. Helens, but what made El Chichón so potentially damaging was that it shot material high enough into atmosphere so that it would take years for it to come down. The result was enough material that once it circulated around the globe it lowered the earth's temperature by a fraction of a degree. [Source: Boris Weintraub, National Geographic, November 1982]

The 1982 eruption took every one by surprise. The last time El Chichón erupted was 1,200 years ago. It is a strange volcano to start with. In addition to being relatively small it is located fa away from the Pacific Ring of Fire in an area where there are no other volcanos. Scientists still don’t really understand what it is doing there. When it erupted it sent salt hurling into the atmosphere along with sulphur dioxide and ash, the first theat has ever been known to happen.

A worker at a seismic station who witnessed a pyroclastic flow said: "It startled me completely. The electrical activity was very intense; by lighting you could see the eruption going on. The noise wasn't very loud, just a low rumble, But the impressive thing about it is that appeared to come from everywhere." He saw a burning avalanche of ash heading his way. "it appeared to be heading very every close to us; reddish light appeared from about two kilometers away, it seemed. I learned later it was actually six kilometers away."

El Chichon An estimated 1,800 people were killed. An exact figure was hard to come by censuses in this part of Mexico are imprecise. The figure could have been higher but smaller eruptions took place before the major event and villages near the volcano had time to evacuate. The event took place eight days before Easter and the day after the eruption was called Ash Sunday because of the amount of volcanic debris that fell on the landscape and in the air. Ash from the sky cam down like snow. People who had no idea what was going on thought they were being punished for their sins and the world was ending. A bishop had to come on the radio to explain it was a natural phenomena.

The village of Francisco León (two miles from the eruption) was the worst hit place. Most of the residents fortunately had been evacuated, but those that remained were all killed. The first body dug up two weeks after the eruption was a small boy clutching a puppy. Residents in Nicapa (four miles away) were also killed.

In the town of Chapultenango the roofs of the church, market, market, movie theater and many houses collapsed from the weight of the ash. "The fire started coming out of the sky," one resident said, "and we didn't know whether to leave or stay. Ash and sand were falling and rocks came through the roof like bullets. After the first time I repaired the roof. Then it all happened a second time.”

Refugees from the eruption were called the damnificados. Most were Indians of the Zoque tribe. Some managed to gather their cattle off the slopes of El Chichón and mae it safety. Most crops within a large radius of survived of El Chichon, and the coffee harvest actually increased in years afterwards.

1935 Mauna Loa Eruption

Mauna Loa, one of the world’s largest active volcanoes, erupted on November 21, 1935, on the island of Hawaii. The eruption threatened Hilo, a coastal town whose population was approximately 20,000. Six days after the eruption began, a vent opened on the volcano’s flank, releasing lava that flowed north between Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. The lava advanced at an average rate of about 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) per day, moving toward the headwaters of the Wailuku River, which supplied water to Hilo. If the lava had disrupted the river, the consequences for the town’s water supply could have been severe. [Sources: Stephen Ruiz, We Are The Mighty, August 7, 2026; Kyle Mizokami, Popular Mechanics, April 19, 2026; U.S. National Park Service; U.S. Geological Survey]

The threat revived memories of Mauna Loa’s 1880–1881 eruption, when lava advanced toward Hilo for several months. Residents feared damage to their homes and property and worried that the town’s water supply could be cut off. According to the National Park Service, some residents prayed to Pelehonuamea, the Hawaiian goddess of fire and volcanoes, for protection. One resident reportedly offered a prized pig, chickens, fruit, and some of his hair in the hope that the goddess would spare the town.

Thomas Jaggar, founder of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, closely monitored the 1935 eruption. Working with volcanologist Ruy Finch, he assessed the advancing lava and the potential danger to Hilo. Jaggar was particularly concerned that the flow could enter the Wailuku River and interfere with the town’s water supply. As the lava continued advancing, he sought military assistance in an attempt to redirect it.

The lava flow eventually slowed and stopped, but the eruption raised questions about how scientists could protect communities from advancing lava. The 1935 event became notable for the decision to use military aircraft against a natural hazard. The approach was unusual, and its effectiveness remained disputed even after the lava stopped moving.

Effort to Stop the 1935 Mauna Loa Eruption by Bombing It

Thomas Jaggar asked the U.S. military to bomb the advancing lava flow in the hope of protecting Hilo. The objective was not to destroy the volcano or eliminate the eruption but to disrupt the lava channels and tubes carrying molten rock toward the Wailuku River. Scientists hoped that explosions might collapse or obstruct the channels, forcing the lava to spread in another direction or stop advancing toward the town. The military agreed to participate, and Lieutenant Colonel George S. Patton, who was stationed in Hawaii, approved the operation.

On December 27, 1935, ten Army aircraft flew from Luke Field at Pearl Harbor to the area threatened by the lava. The aircraft included Keystone B-3 and B-4 bombers, according to accounts of the mission. They dropped 40 bombs in total, including 20 high-explosive bombs and 20 white-phosphorus smoke bombs used to mark impact locations. Another account describes the operation as involving 20 explosive bombs, each weighing approximately 272 kilograms (600 pounds) and containing about 136 kilograms (300 pounds) of TNT. The explosives were aimed at lava channels and the margins of the channels, including a lava tunnel believed to be feeding the advancing flow.

Jaggar observed the bombing from a telescope near Mauna Kea. He later declared that the operation had been successful, arguing that the lava’s advance slowed significantly after the attack. Before the bombing, the flow had reportedly advanced by more than 1,524 meters (5,000 feet) per day; afterward, its movement slowed to approximately 305 meters (1,000 feet) per day. The flow stopped entirely on January 2, 1936, six days after the bombing. Jaggar believed the explosives had hastened the end of the flow and that its abrupt cessation was evidence of the bombing’s effectiveness.

Other scientists disputed that interpretation. Geologist Harold Stearns, who participated in the mission, believed the lava’s slowing and eventual stoppage resulted from natural processes rather than the explosives. The head of Hawaii National Park also expressed doubts about whether the bombing would divert the flow. The U.S. Geological Survey later reported that modern interpretations largely supported Stearns’s conclusion. Because the eruption was already evolving, researchers could not establish conclusively whether the bombing changed its course or timing.

How the 1935 Mauna Loa Eruption Bombing Was Carried Out

The bombing operation was organized by the U.S. Army Air Service, the predecessor of later U.S. Army air organizations and the modern U.S. Air Force. Ten aircraft departed from Luke Field on Ford Island in Pearl Harbor and flew approximately 320 kilometers (200 miles) to the threatened lava flow. The mission was planned under Patton’s authority, while Jaggar and other volcanologists identified the areas they wanted the pilots to target. The aircraft used were Keystone B-3 and B-4 bombers, including B-3A models, along with LB-6 light bombers in some accounts.

The aircraft carried two types of bombs for the operation. Twenty high-explosive bombs were intended to damage or collapse the channels and tunnels through which the lava was moving. The remaining 20 were white-phosphorus smoke bombs, which helped identify the impact points and assess where the explosives had landed. The high-explosive bombs weighed about 272 kilograms (600 pounds) each and contained approximately 136 kilograms (300 pounds) of TNT. According to one account, 16 of the 20 high-explosive bombs struck the target area, and 12 hit the lava tunnel that Jaggar wanted to disrupt.

The pilots concentrated on the channels and margins of the lava flow rather than attempting to attack the volcano’s summit. The strategy was based on the possibility that explosions could alter the flow by breaking through or collapsing sections of the lava tubes. If the channels were blocked or disrupted, the lava might be diverted away from the Wailuku River. The operation represented an attempt to apply military bombing techniques to a geological emergency, although the scientists and military personnel could not guarantee that the explosions would produce the desired result.

After the bombing, Jaggar monitored the lava’s movement and concluded that the operation had achieved its objective. The lava slowed and stopped within days, but the timing alone could not establish that the explosives had caused the change. Stearns and other skeptics argued that the channels might have collapsed or the eruption might have subsided naturally. The uncertainty surrounding the 1935 mission later influenced assessments of subsequent attempts to bomb Mauna Loa during its 1942 eruption and during experiments in the 1970s.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, United States Geological Survey (USGS)

Text Sources: United States Geological Survey (USGS), New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Yomiuri Shimbun, The Guardian, National Geographic, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, Lonely Planet Guides, Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated October 2026