VOLCANOES IN THE MOLUCCAS: HIKERS AND VILLAGERS KILLED AT DUKONO, GAMALAMA AND MAKIAN

VOLCANOES IN THE MOLUCCAS

a) Five active volcanoes in Maluku Utara in the Moloccas; b) settlements and public facilities on the flank of Gamalama volcano on Ternate Island, Researchgate

The Moluccas (Maluku) are located in one of the world's most active volcanic arcs, situated at a complex tectonic plate intersection. These volcanoes are known for continuous activity, ash plumes, and geothermal diving features.

Mount Dukono (North Halmahera) is one of Indonesia’s most continuously active volcanoes, erupting steadily since 1933. It frequently ejects ash and gas, impacting local air quality and prompting exclusion zones.

Mount Gamalama (Ternate) is an heavily populated stratovolcano rising 1,715 meters over the island of Ternate. It is known for frequent historical eruptions and rich surrounding spice gardens.

Mount Gamkonora (Halmahera) is the highest peak on Halmahera and features a massive, panoramic crater.

Mount Api (Banda Islands) is an active 670-meter cone that rises directly from the deep waters of the Banda Sea. It is known for historical lava flows that devastated parts of the islands.

Banua Wuhu is an underwater active volcano near the Sangihe islands that continuously bubbles and releases thermal heat into the surrounding marine environment.

The active volcanoes in the Moluccas (Maluku Islands) are driven by intense tectonic plate collisions in one of the most geologically complex regions on Earth. The convergence of the Eurasian, Pacific, and Indo-Australian plates causes the Molucca Sea Plate to be forced beneath the surrounding plates, generating massive amounts of magma that feed the area's volcanic arcs. The Halmahera Volcanic Arc, located in North Maluku province, features some of Indonesia's most persistently active volcanoes (including Dukono, Ibu, and Gamalama). These are formed by the Molucca Sea Plate subducting beneath the Halmahera Plate.See Below. [Source: Researchgate, Science Direct]

Websites and Sources on Volcanoes: USGS Volcanoes volcanoes.usgs.gov ; Volcano World volcano.oregonstate.edu ; Volcanoes.com volcanoes.com ; Wikipedia Volcano article Wikipedia , Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program volcano.si.edu operated by the Smithsonian has descriptions of volcanoes around the globe and a catalog of over 8,000 eruptions in the last 10,000 years.

Tectonic Activity in the Molucca Sea

Tectonic map of Molucca Sea area; Triangles are active and Quaternary volcanoes Researchgate

The Molucca Sea is located at one of the most complex and geologically significant tectonic intersections on Earth, where the Sunda, Philippine, and Indo-Australian plates converge. This region is notable for containing an active double subduction system, a rare geological configuration in which a single oceanic plate is being consumed beneath two opposing island arcs. As a result, the Molucca Sea plays a crucial role in understanding plate tectonics, mountain building, volcanism, and earthquake generation in Southeast Asia. [Source: Researchgate, Science Direct]

The central feature of the region is the Molucca Sea Plate, which is subducting in two directions simultaneously. To the west, the plate descends beneath the Sangihe Arc, while to the east it sinks beneath the Halmahera Arc. This unusual process, known as divergent double subduction, is one of the few examples of its kind on the planet. The ongoing movement of the surrounding tectonic plates continues to compress the region, driving intense geological activity.

As the Sangihe and Halmahera arcs move toward one another, an arc-arc collision zone has developed within the Molucca Sea. During this process, layers of sediment and fragments of oceanic crust are scraped from the descending plate and accumulated between the converging arcs. The result is a highly deformed and uplifted geological belt characterized by complex folding, faulting, and crustal thickening. This collision zone provides valuable evidence of how island arcs evolve and merge over geological time.

The subduction processes beneath the Molucca Sea also fuel extensive volcanic activity. Magma generated by the descending oceanic plate rises through the crust, feeding parallel chains of active volcanoes along both the Sangihe and Halmahera arcs. Frequent earthquakes occur as tectonic stresses are released along faults and subduction boundaries.A shallow magnitude 7.4 earthquake in the northern Molucca Sea in 2026 generated localized tsunami warnings and produced waves reaching approximately 75 centimeters in height. Modern geophysical studies using deep-mantle tomography have further revealed that previously subducted portions of the Molucca Sea Plate extend to depths of nearly 1,900 kilometers, with some sections showing evidence of active slab break-off deep within the Earth's mantle.

Makian Volcano

Makian (also known as Mount Kie Besi) is an active, 1,357-meter-high andesitic stratovolcano that forms a small, 10-km-wide island off the western coast of Halmahera, Indonesia. It is one of the world’s deadliest volcanoes. An eruption in 1861 killed 326 people. The infrequent but highly explosive eruptions have devastated its villages, though its fertile volcanic soil supports regrowth of dense plantations.

Dukono volcano

Malian volcano has a distinctive flat-topped profile due to a massive, 1.5-km-wide summit crater, which contains a small lake on its northeastern side. Two steep-walled valleys (barrancos) extend from the crater to the coast on the north and east sides.Flank Features: There are four parasitic cones located on the western flanks of the volcano.

Violent historical eruptions have been recorded since the 1550s, producing large ash plumes, pyroclastic flows, and lava domes. The 1760 eruption was particularly catastrophic, resulting in approximately 3,000 fatalities.Recent Activity: Its most recent eruptions occurred in 1988, which generated a 10 kilometers high plume, pyroclastic flows, and forced the temporary evacuation of the island's entire population.

Mount Dukono Eruption in 2026

Mount Dukono is one of Indonesia’s most active volcanoes and is located on Halmahera Island in North Maluku Province. The volcano rises to approximately 1,229 meters (4,032 feet) above sea level and has been in a state of near-continuous activity for decades. Its summit contains the Malupang Warirang crater, which frequently emits ash, steam, volcanic gases, and occasional ballistic rock fragments. Due to its persistent activity, authorities regularly monitor the volcano and maintain exclusion zones around the crater to protect residents and visitors. [Source: Darryl Coote, UPI, May 8, 2026; Aqil Hamzah,Zaihan Mohamed Yusof, Straits Times, May 13, 2026; The Telegraph August 21, 2024; Chatgpt]

The volcano is a popular destination for adventure tourists and hikers because of its accessibility and dramatic volcanic landscape. Visitors typically reach the mountain from the villages of Mamuya or Ruko, which serve as starting points for trekking routes. Despite its popularity, Mount Dukono presents significant hazards because eruptions can occur with little warning. Indonesian volcanologists therefore issue regular advisories and recommend that visitors respect all safety restrictions.

On May 8, 2026, Mount Dukono erupted at approximately 7:41 a.m. local time while groups of hikers were on the mountain. According to Indonesia’s geological monitoring agency, the eruption produced an ash column that rose more than 10,000 meters (32,800 feet) above the summit and drifted northward. The eruption remained ongoing after the initial explosion, creating dangerous conditions across the upper slopes of the volcano. Volcanic ash, gases, and falling rocks were reported in the affected area.

The eruption occurred after weeks of increased volcanic activity. Since late March 2026, monitoring stations had recorded elevated visual and seismic activity, prompting authorities to maintain the volcano at Alert Level II, the second-lowest level in Indonesia’s four-tier warning system. A climbing ban had been imposed on April 17, 2026, and visitors were prohibited from entering a danger zone extending 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) from the crater. Despite these restrictions, several trekking groups continued to visit the volcano.

Hikers Killed by the Mount Dukono Eruption in 2026

The eruption resulted in the deaths of three climbers and injuries to at least five others. The victims were identified as Singaporean nationals Shahin Muhrez Abdul Hamid, 27, and Timothy Heng, 30, along with Indonesian climber Angel Krishela Pradita, 28. The group had begun their ascent on 7 May and reached the upper slopes of the volcano on the morning of the eruption. Video footage recorded shortly before the event showed climbers approaching the summit area. [Source: Darryl Coote, UPI, May 8, 2026; Aqil Hamzah,Zaihan Mohamed Yusof, Straits Times, May 13, 2026; The Telegraph August 21, 2024; Chatgpt]

When the volcano erupted, ash clouds and volcanic rocks swept across the mountain. Some hikers were able to flee down the slopes, but others were caught in the hazardous conditions. Rescue teams searched the area for several days. Angel Krishela Pradita’s body was recovered on 9 May, while the remains of the two Singaporean climbers were found the following day. The recovery effort involved local authorities, search-and-rescue personnel, and volunteer guides working in difficult volcanic terrain.

The question of responsibility remains under investigation, but evidence suggests that multiple factors contributed to the tragedy. Indonesia’s National Disaster Management Agency stated that authorities suspected negligence by tourism operators or organizers who continued climbing activities despite the official closure of the mountain. A climbing ban had been in effect for three weeks before the eruption, and warning notices had been posted at the volcano observation station in Mamuya. Authorities have since launched efforts to establish a complete timeline of events.

The lead guide of the group, Reza Selang, denied knowingly violating any restrictions. He stated that he had not received information about the climbing ban and had relied on advice from local villagers who reported no recent signs of volcanic activity. However, experienced guides and volcanology officials argued that trekking leaders should obtain the latest information directly from the official observation post, where seismic monitoring data and hazard warnings are available. Several local guides emphasized that foreign visitors normally depend on licensed guides to secure permits, review safety information, and ensure compliance with exclusion zones.

The incident also highlighted broader issues involving communication and enforcement. Some guides claimed that information about the closure was not consistently distributed among trekking operators. Reports indicated that other climbing groups had also visited the volcano in the days before the eruption. Nevertheless, official warnings had clearly prohibited access within the danger zone around the crater. Following the disaster, local authorities permanently closed all access routes to Mount Dukono, reflecting concerns that previous restrictions had not been adequately observed or enforced.

Gamalama

Gunung Api Gamalama is a 1721-meter-high (5,627 foot high) stratovolcano at the center of Ternate, an island in the Moluccas (Maluka, the Spice Islands). It erupted quite violently in 1840, killing hundreds of people and destroying nearly every structure on the island. More recently it erupted in 1980, 1983 and 1994. Reaching the top takes about five hours and requires a guide. On the way up the hike passes through clove plantations.

Gamalama dominates Ternate. Tours to the mountain are available. A local guide will escort you through the 5 hour trek to the mountains peak. Sometimes visitors get to see the Ternate Sultan’s crown worn only at coronations. Legend has it that the crown presents ‘growing hair’, which needs regular trimming. The people believe that parading the crown around the island prevents disaster, and has prevented Mount Gamalama from erupting in the past.

Gamalama is a near-perfect conical stratovolcano that forms the entire island of Ternate off the western coast of Halmahera. It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes. The island of Ternate was a major regional center in the Portuguese and Dutch spice trade for several centuries, which is the main reason the historic activity of Gamalana volcano is so well dosumented.Gamalana has 9 craters: Arfat Crater, Madiena, K1, K2, K3, K4, Laguna Lake, Tolire Jaha and Tolire Kecil. 3 cones, progressively younger to the north, form the summit of Gamalama volcano. Several maars and vents define a rift zone, parallel to the Halmahera island arc, that cuts the volcano.

According to to Travel Guide Gunung Api Gamalama: “ Gamalama erupted in 1840, destroying almost every house on the island. Although it has blown its fiery nose as recently as 1980, 1983 and 1994 it is not considered imminently dangerous. A volcanology unit keeps careful watch from Marikuruba village. There are pleasant, short, clove-grove hikes from Air Tege Tege village (near the transmitter tower). The going is very steep and climbing above the tree line is both strenuous and hazardous. Reaching the often cloud-shrouded summit takes around five hours and requires a guide. At least two foreign visitors have disappeared in the attempt; some claim this was because they broke taboos (eg not urinating above a certain elevation) or failed to say requisite prayers en route. The tourist offices can help locate guides.

Mt. Gamalama Eruptions

Eruptions on Gamalama, recorded frequently since the 16th century, typically originated from the summit craters, although flank eruptions have occurred in 1763, 1770, 1775, and 1962-63. Some eruptions such as in 1771, 1773, 1775, 1838, 1871, and as lately as in 1962 caused fatalities. Typical eruption style: Explosive. Gamalama volcano eruptions: 1510, 1538, 1561, 1605, 1635, 1643, 1648, 1653, 1659, 1676, 1686, 1687, 1737, 1739, 1763, 1770, 1771-72, 1773-74, 1775, 1811, 1812, 1814, 1830, 1831, 1833, 1835, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1847, 1849-50, 1858, 1860, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1864, 1868, 1868-69, 1871, 1884, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1900, 1907, 1911, 1918, 1923, 1932, 1933, 1938, 1962-63, 1980, 1983, 1988, 1990, 1991, May 1993-94, 1996, 2003 (31 July — 2 Oct), 2007-08, 2012. [Sources: GVP, Smithsonian Institution, volcanodiscovery.com ~~]

2007-2008 eruption: Seismic activity increased at Gamalama volcano beginning 20 August 2007 and a few days later, there was a small eruption. On 23 August, white and gray plumes rose to an altitude of 2.1 kilometers. Authorities banned access within a 2-kilometer radius of the active crater. Activity continued into 2008 with weak occasional ash and steam emissions. On 11 May 2008, CVGHM reported that emissions from Gamalama had risen to higher altitudes during the previous two days. On 10 May, white-to-gray plumes rose to an altitude of 1.8 kilometers and drifted N. On 11 May, white plumes increased throughout the day from 1.7 to 2.2 kilometers altitude.

2003 eruption: pyroclastic flows and ash fall on Ternate: On 31 July, a series of strong explosions occurred, producing ash plumes up to 2 kilometers above the crater. A pyroclastic flow traveled down Togorar valley on the northeast flank of Gamalama volcano. On 1 August, ashfall was 1-3 cm thick in the E part of the island and some of the local population was evacuated. Ternate town ca. 7 kilometers east of Gamalana was covered with thick ash. There were no reports of casualties or damage. Ash explosions continued until October 2003.

Mt. Gamalama Eruptions in the 1980s and 90s

1994 Aug 5 eruption: 3 kilometers high ash plume: An unusually powerful and sudden eruption occurred on 5 August 1994 at 21h25 local time, producing an ash cloud reaching 3 kilometers above the summit and strong ash fall in nearby areas. An aviation warning was issued for the area. A felt earthquake a few minutes before the eruption had an intensity of MM II-III. Smaller eruptions happened in the following days and weeks, such as on 14 August when there was ashfall in Ternate. The frequency of eruptions in this period was 5-20 minor explosions/day.

1993 eruptions — powerful ash emissions and minor pyroclastic flows: Strong eruptions occurred in May 1993. Explosive eruptions produced ash plumes up to 3 kilometers high and pyroclastic flows. 1990 eruption: A powerful series of eruptions at Gamalana began on 25 April 1990, with ash clouds reaching 5 kilometers above the volcano and producing strong pyroclastic flows traveling 4.5 kilometers distance, leaving a 5 meters thick deposit. 1988 eruption: Gamalama volcano eruption on 12 February 1988 caused ash fall over Ternate Island and the evacuation of 3000 people.

1983 eruption: 5000 people evacuated: A strong eruption was reported on 9 August at 04h45 local time. A thick black eruption column containing incandescent material rose 1.5 kilometers and caused a pyroclastic flow traveling down the north flank, destroying homes and plantations. Ash fell W of the volcano, closing the local airport of Ternate. Explosions on 10 August produced 1.5- kilometer ash columns. More than 5,000 persons living near the volcano were evacuated. No casualties were reported. 1980 eruption: 40,000 people evacuated: Gamalama Volcano started erupting on 4 September 1980 ejecting incandescent tephra and glowing bombs to up to 1 kilometers distance. A new crater was formed on the ENE side of the summit. On 5 Sep eruptions caused forest fires and ash fall over large parts of the island. At Ternate City 7 kilometers E of the crater ash fall reached 10 cm. About 40,000 people evacuated to Tidore Island. A new crater formed ENE of the summit. Eruptions continued until the end of September 1980.

Three Killed by Gamalama Mudflow in 2011

In December 2011, the BBC reported: “At least three villagers have died and thousands more have been displaced by volcanic mudflow in eastern Indonesia. A government spokesman said heavy rains caused cold lava and debris to flow into villages near Mount Gamalama in Ternate, Maluku province on Tuesday. The volcano erupted on 4 December but there were no casualties at the time. "Three people were killed in the lava mud flow and at least 2,561 villagers have been displaced," Sukarjan Firto told AFP news agency. "They are now being sheltered in several government offices." [Source: BBC, December 29, 2011]

A year later, Adonai wrote in thewatchers.com, “Two separate explosions occurred at Gamalama volcano on Ternate Island, Indonesia on September 16, 2012 at 13.22 and 14.15 local time. Volcano Discovery reported that the eruption followed an increase in seismic activity and triggered PVMBG to raise the alert level to 3 (out of 4) "Siaga". According to the newspaper Liputan 6 people saw an ash plume rise but have not heard the explosion. State volcanologist Kristianto said slow-moving red lava was visible at the peak of the eruption. Villages have been blanketed with thick ash but no evacuations have been ordered. [Source: Adonai, thewatchers.com, September 18, 2012]

An eruption prior to this occurred on December 4, 2011 when Mount Gamalama ejected material up to 2,000 meters into the air. Thousands of residents in nearby Ternate City fled due to ash and dust particles raining down on the town. By December 27th 4 people have died and dozens were injured from debris falls (lahar). Some people were panicking, but the situation remained otherwise calm in Ternate.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006; National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, Indonesia Tourism website (indonesia.travel), Indonesia government websites, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026