SULAWESI
Sulawesi is a huge crab shaped island east of Borneo and Kalimantan, south of the Philippines, west of the Moluccas and north of Flores. Formerly known as Celebes, it is about the size of Nebraska and consists of four large peninsulas fringed by coral reefs and covered by large wildernesses areas with marshy coastal plains and jungle covered mountains in the interior. There are also smoking volcanos and large agricultural areas. Off the coast in some places are distinctive Sulawesi fishing platforms.
Sulawesi covers an area of 186,216 square kilometers (71,898 square miles) (including minor islands administered as part of Sulawesi). It accounts for 10 percent of Indonesia's area and 7 percent of its population.The interior of Sulawesi is dominated by rugged mountain ranges, which have historically isolated the island’s peninsulas from one another. As a result, communication and travel between regions were traditionally easier by sea than by land. The interior is generally sparsely inhabited. The major ethnic groups in the south are the Bugis and the Makassarese. The Toradja occupy the southern highlands. A mosaic of other groups are scattered across the island.
The ancient Chinese made it do Sulawesi. Some people today make their living today by digging up the graves of Chinese mariners and unearthing porcelain from the 11th century Song and Ming dynasties worth thousands of dollars. The mariners were often interned together and grave robbers have found 11th century vases using steel rods to probe the soft mud where they were buried.
Two of the most famous products from Celebes were Makassar poison, which, according to 17th century diarist Samuel Pepys, was given by Englishmen to dogs in their gentlemen's clubs to watch them die, and Makassar oil, which men used to grease back their hair. It was once described as the greasiest of the "greasy kids stuff." [Source: "Ring of Fire" by Lawrence and Lorne Blair, Bantam Books, New York]
Ethnic Groups in Northern Sulawesi
Minahasans live in a mountainous area in the extreme northeastern section of the northern peninsula on Sulawesi. Also known as the Minahasa, Minahasser, Minhasa, Tombalu, Tombulu, Toumbulu, they are a confederation of groups that joined together to fight their neighbors, the Bolaang Mongondow. The Minahasans raise wet and dry rice and others crops and are known as being good in business and have a tradition of service on international shipping lines. They are regarded as being outward looking and possessing excellent language and navigation skills. In the past they had close contact with the Dutch. They are mostly Christians and their traditional culture has largely disappeared. The Minahasans are said to have descended from the marriage of a mother and son who were created by gods that rose from the sea. ~
Mongondow live in northern Sulawesi on the Minahassa peninsula. Also known as the Bolaang-Mongondese, Bolaang-Mongondo, Mongondou and Bolaang Mongondow, they live in coastal areas and on highland plateaus, where they grow wet rice, sago, yams and cassava and raise of pigs, cattle, buffalo, goats, and chickens.. Their society has traditionally had three divisions: nobles, commoners and slaves. [Source:“Encyclopedia of World Cultures, East and Southeast Asia” edited by Paul Hockings (G.K. Hall & Company, 1993) ~]
Gorontalese are the dominant group in northwestern Sulawesi. Also known as the Gorontalo, Holontalo, Hulontal, they number around 500,000 and are most Sunni Muslims who have kept many of their traditional beliefs alive. ~
Tomini live in northern Sulawesi. Also known as the Tiadje, Tialo, Toi-toli, Tominers, they live primarily on the coast in stilted houses and are subsistence farmers who produce maize, wet rice and sago and are very much involved in the production of cloves. Most are Sunni Muslims, with some animist tribes living in small enclaves in the mountains. These tribes have been the object of acculturation and relocation efforts by the Indonesian government. They numbered around 74,000 in 1980. ~
Ethnic Groups in Central Sulawesi
Balantak live on the most easterly end of east-central Sulawesi. Also known as the Kosian and Balantak, thye have traditionally been slash-and -burn agriculturists and raised domestic animals such as goats and dogs. Their traditional belief system revolves around ancestor worship. Many are now Muslims and Christians. They numbered about 30,000 in the early 1980s and are closely related to the Banggai. [Source: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures, East and Southeast Asia” edited by Paul Hockings (G.K. Hall & Company, 1993) ~]
Banggai inhabit the Banggain Archipelago off the tip of the peninsula in east-central Sulawesi. Also known as the Aki, Mian Banggai, Mian Sea-Sea, they too have traditionally been slash-and -burn agriculturist but they also have raised coconuts as a cash crop. They numbered around 86,000 in 1978 and incorporate animism into their Muslim and Christian beliefs. ~
Saluan live in east-central Sulawesi. Also known as the Loinan, Loinanezen, Loindang, Madi and To Loinang, they are mostly subsistence farmers who live in raised wood or bamboo houses in villages with no more than 7000 inhabitants. Their traditional religion is based on ancestor worship. Many are now Muslims or Christians. ~
Groups in Southern Sulawesi
Laki live in the southern part of southeastern Sulawesi. Also known as the Lalaki, Lolaki, To Laki, they raise rice and sago and hunt deer. Traditionally their society was divided into nobles, commoners and slaves. [Source: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures, East and Southeast Asia” edited by Paul Hockings (G.K. Hall & Company, 1993) ~]
Muna live on Muna Island south of the southeastern peninsula of Sulawesi. Also known as the Mina, Moenanezen, and To Muna, they have traditionally lived in plaited-grass houses on piles and raised maize, sweet potatoes and sugar and were ruled for centuries by the Butonese sultanate. ~
Toala live in the mountains of southwest Sulawesi. Also known as the East Toraja, Luwu, Teleu Limpoe, To Ale, they are former hunter-gatherers who are now primarily subsistence farmers and workers at copra plantations. Some are Muslims but many have retained their traditional animist beliefs. There were about 30,000 of them in 1983. In the old days they were divided into three subtribes ruled by hereditary chiefs but now have an elected chief. ~
Sama-Bajau
The term Sama-Bajau is used to describe a diverse group of Sama-Bajau-speaking people who are found in a large maritime area with many islands that stretch from central Philippines to the eastern coast of Borneo and from Sulawesi to Roti in eastern Indonesia. The Sama-Bajau people usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people") and have traditionally been known by outsiders as Bajau (also spelled Badjao, Bajaw, Badjau, Badjaw, Bajo or Bayao). They have also been Sea Gypsies, Sea Nomads and Samal as well as Sama Moro and Turijene in the Philippines, Luwa’an, Pala’au, Sama Dilaut and Turijene in Indonesia, and the Bajau Laut in Malaysia. Some of these names refer to Sama-Bajua subgroups. [Source: Clifford Sather, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; Wikipedia]
Sama-Bajau speakers are probably the most widely dispersed indigenous ethnolinguistic group in Southeast Asia. Their settlements are scattered throughout the central Philippines, the Sulu Archipelago, the eastern coast of Borneo, Palawan, western Sabah (Malaysia), and coastal Sulawesi. They also have small enclaves in Zambales and northern Mindanao. In the Philippines, most Sama speakers are referred to as "Samal," a Tausug term also used by Christian Filipinos, with the exceptions of Yakan, Abak, and Jama Mapun. In Indonesia and Malaysia, related Sama-speaking groups are known as "Bajau," a term of apparent Malay origin. In the Philippines, however, the term "Bajau" is more narrowly reserved for boat-nomadic or formerly nomadic groups referred to elsewhere as "Bajau Laut" or "Orang Laut."
For most of their history, the Sama-Bajau have been nomadic seafaring people who live off the sea through trade and subsistence fishing. They have traditionally stayed close to shore with houses on stilts and traveled, and sometimes lived in, handmade boats lepa. Sama-Bajau are the dominant ethnic group in Tawi-Tawi islands and are generally associated with the Sulu islands, the southernmost islands of the Philippines. They are also found in the coastal areas of Mindanao and other islands in the southern Philippines, as well as in northern and eastern Borneo, Sulawesi, and throughout the eastern Indonesian islands. Most Sama-Bajau are Muslims. In the Philippines, they are grouped with the Moro people, who have similar religious beliefs. Some Sama-Bajau groups native to Sabah are also known for their traditional horse culture. The Orang Laut and Moken are two other traditional sea-based peoples. The Orang Laut have traditionally lived southern peninsular Malaysia, southeastern Sumatra and Singapore. The Moken live in southern Myanmar and western Thailand.
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Bonerate
The Bonerate people are an ethnic group in South Sulawesi that inhabit around the Selayar island group such as Bonerate, Madu, Kalaotoa, and Karompa islands, which are in the middle of the Flores Sea between Flores and Sulawesi. Also known as the Orang Bonerate, Salayar and Selayar, they are regarded as skilled boat builders and were once involved in slaving and piracy. Bonerate men still spend a lot time at sea. The Bonerate language is closely related to the language of the Tukang Besi islands off the southeast coast of Buton Island. [Source: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures, East and Southeast Asia” edited by Paul Hockings (G.K. Hall & Company, 1993) ~]
The Bonerate are Muslims but not particularly devout ones. Ramadan is the only time mosques see many people and many people believe in spirits and ghosts.Sexually provocative behavior occurs in a possession-trance ritual practiced only by women, in which they smother glowing embers with their bare feet at the climax of the ritual.
Bonerate is a relatively inhospitable island without much water. The Bonerate raise corn, cassava, pumpkins, watermelon and other foods in the short rainy season. Sometimes water supplies run so short they have to drink relatively brackish water found near the coast. Most protein is derived from fish, and marine worms and crustaceans. Their boat building is done with remarkably low technology methods and tools that were adaptable when they switch from primarily making sailboats to motorboats. ~
In marriage, a lot of emphasis is placed on the groom marrying above his station to improve the status of his family. Marriages have traditionally been arranged and sometimes wealthy families of the bride give money to the groom’s family to help them pay off the bride price. Relations between husband and wife and men and women in general tend to be very egalitarian. The arts focuses on war dances accompanied by flute music. Occasionally there are trance dances with possessed women dressed as sea captains, babbling a language interpreted by ritual leaders. ~
Butonese
The Butonese are a group that live in two regions on the southeastern part of Sulawesi and on the islands of Buton (Butuni or Butung), Muna, Kabaen and the Tukangbese Islands. Also known as the Orang Buton, Orang Butung, Orang Butuni, they once belonged to a powerful sultanate that was dissolved in 1960 but otherwise are difficult to define. There are about a half million people on the islands and regions that once belonged to the Butonese sultanate. [Source: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures, East and Southeast Asia” edited by Paul Hockings (G.K. Hall & Company, 1993) ~]
The Butonese sultanate was founded as a Hindu kingdom in the 15th century. The sixth king (raja) converted to Islam in 1540 and later converted the whole kingdom, which lies on the strategic route between the Spice islands and Java. The sultanates of Makassar and Termate tried to control Buton which managed to stay independent through agreements with the Dutch East India Company and later the Dutch colonial government and wasn’t completely absorbed by Indonesia until 1960. ~
Butonese settlements have tended to be closely packed together with a high number of residences. Many have been located in defensible positions like on hills and had stone walls and other protection to defend off attacks from pirates. Some Butonese are farmers who raise rice, maize, tobacco, peanuts, cashews and other crops but mostly they are known as boat builders and prahu-based mariners and sea traders like the Bugis. In the old days they were involved in slave trading. ~
Many Butonese social customs and religious beliefs are in line with those of Islam. Sufism is strong and is believed to have taken root because of its similarities with Hindu beliefs that existed before the conversion to Islam. Monogamy is the rule but in the past many nobles and the sultan had several wives. There traditionally have been four classes—two classes of nobles, commoners and slaves—which still define and stratify their descendants and specify who they can marry. ~
Cia-Cia Butonese Adopt Korean Hangul to Preserve Their Language
The Cia-Cia, a Butonese group that lives in Bau-Bau, the main city on Buton Island, have officially adopted Hangul, the Korean written alphabet, to transcribe their spoken language of Cia-Cia. It is the first time that foreigners have adopted Hangul as their official writing system. According to the Hunminjeongeum Research Institute, the city began distributing textbooks written in Hangul in 2009 to 400 elementary students in the Sorawolio district where many Cia-Cia people live. [Source: hankorey, August 7, 2009]
The 60,000 member Cia-Cia tribe has been on the verge of a crisis regarding the disappearance of their language. They do not have a writing system to complement their spoken language. Members of the Hunminjeongeum Research Institute persuaded them to adopt Hangul, and established a memorandum of understanding with city officials to use Hangul on July 2008. The Hunminjeongeum Research Institute invited two persons from the Cia-Cia tribe to Seoul to create a textbook written in Hangul. The textbook includes traditional Cia-Cia and Korean stories. The Hunminjeongeum Research Institute and Bau-Bau City will build a Hangul Culture Center and plan to train teachers in Hangul. Kim Ju-won, the president of the Hunminjeongeum Research Institute, says “It is significant that Hangul can be used to prevent a minority language from disappearing.” [Ibid]
In 2013, the Korean Times reported: “The King Sejong Institute, which operates Korean-learning programs overseas, established a language school in Bau-Bau City on Indonesia's Buton Island in early 2012 to teach Hangeul but it was temporarily closed eight months later due to a budget shortage. The school, located inside Muhammadiyah Buton University, resumed operations in 2013 said Song Hyang-geun, chairman of the King Sejong Institute. "We've reopened language courses for the Cia Cia after resolving the financial problem," Song said. "A 27-year-old Indonesian teacher, who completed Korean teaching programs in Korea last year, will give lessons twice a week, using textbooks tailored for the minority tribe." Song also said another Korean language school will be established in Makassar City on Sulawesi Island in March. There is also a similar school in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta. Song said the Cia Cia people have shown a growing interest in learning Korean since the tribe adopted the Korean alphabet to transcribe its native language in 2009. [Source: Na Jeong-ju, Korean Times, January 3, 2013]
Mandarese
The Mandarese ((pronounced MAHN-duh-reez) are an Austronesian ethnic group that live in West Sulawesi and have been known for centuries for their seafaring abilities. They are dominant group in province of West Sulawesi area. Using their traditional sandeq boats, Mandarese cruise to all over Indonesia and reached as far as present-day Malaysia and Australia. People who live in mountainous areas have a culture similar to that of the Torajans, especially in terms of house architecture, language, clothes and traditional ceremonies.[Source: Wikipedia; Joshua Project]
The Mandar language belongs to the Northern subgroup of the South Sulawesi languages group of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. The closest language to Mandar is the Toraja-Sa'dan language. According to the Christian group Joshua Project their population in the early 2020s was 565,000 and 99.9 percent of them were Muslims Before regional administrative divisions were established, the Mandarese, together with the
Bugis, Makassarese, and Toraja peoples, formed the cultural mosaic of South Sulawesi. Although West Sulawesi and South Sulawesi are now separated by political boundaries, the Mandarese remain historically and culturally closely connected to their cognate communities in South Sulawesi. The term “Mandar” refers to the collective identity formed by seven coastal kingdoms known as Pitu Ba’ba’na Binanga and seven river or upstream kingdoms known as Pitu Ulunna Salu.
Ethnically, the Pitu Ulunna Salu—commonly referred to as Kondo Sapata—are classified as part of the Toraja group and are concentrated in Mamasa Regency and parts of Mamuju Regency. In contrast, the Pitu Ba’ba’na Binanga comprise a range of dialects and languages. Together, the strength and interdependence of these fourteen kingdoms gave rise to the concept of Sipamandar, meaning brotherhood and unity among the Mandarese people. This unity was formalized through an ancestral covenant sworn at Allewuang Batu in Luyo.
Mandarese History
Historically, the Mandarese consisted of seventeen kingdoms: seven upstream kingdoms known as Pitu Ulunna Salu, seven estuary kingdoms called Pitu Ba’ba’na Binanga, and three additional kingdoms collectively referred to as Kakarunna Tiparittiqna Uhai. The Mandarese adopted Islam beginning in the early seventeenth century. [Source: Wikipedia]
The seven kingdoms of the Pitu Ulunna Salu alliance were: 1) Rante Bulahang; 2) Aralle; 3) Tabulahang; 4) Mambi; 5) Matangnga; 6) Tabang; 7) Bambang. The seven kingdoms of the Pitu Ba’ba’na Binanga alliance were: 1) Balanipa; 2) Sendana; 3) Banggae; 4) Pamboang; 5) Tapalang; 6) Mamuju; 7) Benuang. The three kingdoms of Kakarunna Tiparittiqna Uhai in the Lembang Mapi region were: 1) Alu; 2) Tuqbi; 3) Taramanuq.
The upstream kingdoms were well adapted to mountainous environments, while the estuary kingdoms possessed extensive knowledge of maritime conditions. The Mandar region bordered Pinrang Regency in South Sulawesi to the south, Tana Toraja Regency to the east, Palu in Central Sulawesi to the north, and the Makassar Strait to the west.
Throughout Mandar history, numerous figures emerged to resist Dutch colonial rule, including Imaga Daeng Rioso, Puatta I Sa’adawang, Maradia Banggae, Ammana Iwewang, Andi Depu, and Mara’dia Batulaya. Despite this resistance, Mandarese territories were eventually occupied by the Dutch East Indies. The enduring resistance ethos, known as the “spirit of Assimandarang,” persisted until the Mandar region was officially recognized as the province of West Sulawesi in 2004.
Mandarese Society and Culture
Mandarese society retains strong elements of traditional social relations. Feudal nobility, including descendants of former rulers known as mara’dia (princes), continues to play a role within modern administrative and governmental systems. An important social shift has also been observed: many Mandarese women have moved away from traditional weaving activities and increasingly participate in the fish trade. [Source: Wikipedia]
Culturally, the Mandarese share many similarities with the Bugis. Their economy traditionally centers on fisheries—particularly the production of dried, salted, and fermented fish—as well as agriculture, including coconut palms, dry rice, coffee, tobacco, and forestry products. The Mandarese are widely regarded as among the most skilled sailors in Sulawesi and have long been active in maritime transportation.
Traditional cultural expressions include a two-stringed lute and the boyang, the traditional Mandarese house. Festivals such as Sayyang Pattu’du (the dancing horse) and Passandeq (outrigger canoe sailing) remain important cultural events. In South Pulau Laut District of Kota Baru Regency, the Mandarese also practice the Mappando’esasi sea-bathing ceremony. Traditional foods such as jepa, pandeangang peapi, and banggulung tapa are characteristic of Mandarese cuisine.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; National Geographic; New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, and various books and other publications.
Last Updated January 2026