COBRAS IN ASIA: SPECIES, CHARACTERISTICS, VENOM

COBRA SPECIES IN ASIA

monocled cobra with its signature O-shaped or monocellate pattern at the back of its hood

There are about a dozen cobra or cobra-like species living in Asia. In contrast to Africa, where there are about twice as many cobra species and they are much more diverse, in Asia most cobra species are similar in their characteristics, behavior, and habitat preferences. The association of cobras with Asia has a lot to do with the frequent appearance of the snakes in the region's religions, folklore, art and mythology. [Source: Ben Team, Pets on Mom.com]

Except for king cobras (Ophiophagus hannah), all Asian cobras belong to the genus Naja. Up until the 1980s, all Asian species of Naja were considered subspecies of a single species. That changed in 1989 when researchers Wolfgang Wuster and Roger S. Thorpe began separating the species in paper published in the "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society." Wuster, along with other scientists, described how king cobras are a distinct lineage, and arose independently of the "true" cobras in a 2007 paper published in "Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution." While the study focused on the mitochondrial DNA of several different cobra species, this evolutionary divergence is also reflected in morphology and diet.

King cobras are the largest venomous snake in the world. Growing up to about six meters, they are brown in color above with a greyish-brown belly. Monocled (N. kauthia) and spectacled cobras (N. naja) look a lot alike. The main difference between the two their hood markings. Spectacled cobras — the main species used by snake charmers — have eyespots on the dorsal side of their hoods; meanwhile, monocled cobras have only one eyespot, on the rear of their hoods.

Other species of cobra found in Asia, mainly the eastern and southeastern parts of the continent are: 1) Indochinese spitting cobras (Naja siamensis) of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar, known for being irritable and frequently spitting on perceived threatened; 2) Burmese spitting cobras (N. mandalayensis), one of the smallest cobra species, with adults rarely exceeding one meter (3 feet); 3) Chinese or Taiwanese cobras (N. atra); 4) and 5) Sumatran cobras (N. sumatrana) and Javan spitting cobras (N.sputatrix), variably colored spitting species that live primarily in the Sumatran rainforests of Malaysia and western Indonesia; 6) and 7) Philippine cobras (N. philippiensis) and the Samar cobra (N. samarensis), which inhabit the forests of the Philippines, preying on rodents and amphibians; 8) Andaman cobras (N. sagittifera), which inhabits the Andaman islands of India in the Bay of Bengal; and 9) the Caspian cobra (N. oxiana), which lives mainly Central Asia but is found as far east as India.

In the 1970s, there were six species of cobra: five in Africa and the Middle East and one in Asia. The Asian species was divided into about 10 subspecies, including the Indian cobra, common cobra, Asian cobra and spectacled cobra or simple cobra. The Asian cobra reached lengths of 1½ meters (5 feet) and was found throughout southern Asia, including Taiwan and the Philippines. The Asian cobra subspecies has since been divided more than a hal dozen species.

Indian Cobras

Indian cobra, with its signature spectacled or two circular ocelli pattern at the back of its hood,

Indian cobras (Naja naja) are also known as spectacled cobras, Asian cobras and or binocellate cobras. Native to India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, they are a a species of cobra (Naja) in the family Elapidae of venomous snakes. The species is one of the "big four" species that are responsible for the most snakebite cases in India.

Indian cobras are favored by snake charmers and are revered in Hindu mythology and culture,. Measuring 1.2 to 1.7 meters (four to 5½ feet), they are common throughout south Asia and are responsible for a relatively large number of snake fatalities in India, in part due its fondness for rice paddies and roadside banks near villages. Even so they protected species under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972).

Indian cobras are found in a wide range of habitats: dense forests, open forests, plains, agricultural lands (rice paddy fields, wheat crops), rocky terrain, wetlands, and even heavily populated areas, such as villages, city outskirts and even urban areas. The species is often found near water. Among the preferred hiding places are holes in embankments, tree hollows, termite mounds, rock piles and small mammal dens.

Monocled Cobras

Monocled cobras (Naja kaouthia) are also called monocellate cobras and Indian spitting cobras. Found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, southern China, eastern India, Laos, northwestern Malaysia, Nepal, Thailand, southeastern Tibet and Vietnam, they look a lot Indian cobras except Indian cobras have two spots on the back of their hood hoods while monocled cobras have only one. In addition, monocled cobras have morphological adaptations to their fangs and mouth which allow them to accurately spit venom. Despite this, monocled cobras are not known to spit very frequently and are considered “non-spitters” in the past. Monocled cobras are not endangered. They have been assessed as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List as they have a large distribution and tolerance to a broad range of habitats. They cause the most snake bite deaths in Thailand.

range of the monocled cobra

Adult monocled cobras reach a length of 1.35 to 1.5 meters (4.4 to 4.9 feet). Many larger specimens have been recorded, but they are rare. Adults can reach a maximum of 2.3 meters (7.5 feet) in length. The monocled cobra has an O-shaped, or monocellate hood pattern, unlike that of the Indian cobra, which has the "spectacle" pattern (two circular ocelli connected by a curved line) on the rear of its hood. Monocled cobras can adapt to a range of habitats including grasslands, shrublands, forests, agricultural land and even cities but prefer habitats associated with water, such as paddy fields, swamps and mangroves, [Source: Wikipedia]

Monocled cobra are most active at dusk. In rice-growing areas, they hide in rodent burrows in the dykes between fields and have become semi-aquatic in this type of habitat. Juveniles feed mostly on amphibians whereas adults prey on small mammals, snakes and fish. When disturbed it prefers to escape. However, when threatened it will raise the anterior portions of the body, spread its hood, usually hisses loudly and strikes in an attempt to bite and defend itself. It often hides in tree holes and areas where rodents are plentiful. Females lay 16 to 33 eggs per clutch. Incubation periods range from 55 to 73 days. Egg-laying takes place January through March. The females usually stay with the eggs. Some collaboration between males and females has been reported in Indian cobra- Monacled cobra hybrids.

The venom of the monocled cobra taken from three different places had three different levels of toxicity measured by intravenous and subcutaneous median lethal dose: 1) Thailand, 0.18-0.22 micrograms per gram; 2) Malaysia, 0.90-1.11 micrograms per gram; and 3) Vietnam, 0.90-1.00 micrograms per gram, of mouse body weight. The average venom yield per bite is approximately 263 milligrams dry weight. The major toxic components in cobra venoms are postsynaptic neurotoxins, which block the nerve transmission by binding specifically to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, leading to flaccid paralysis and even death by respiratory failure.

The venom of this species also contains myotoxins that cause muscle necrosis (tissue death) and cardiotoxins affect the heart. Venomous bites usually cause extensive local necrosis. Drowsiness, neurological and neuromuscular symptoms occur earliest; hypotension, flushing of the face, warm skin, and pain around bite site typically occur within one to four hours following the bite. Paralysis, ventilatory failure or death can ensue rapidly, possibly as early as 60 minutes in very severe cases. The presence of fang marks does not always imply that venomous bites actually occurred. Dry bites are fairly common.

Brown Banded Cobras

Brown banded cobras live in China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. They were considered to be a subspecies of monocled cobras until genetic studies conducted in 2022 led to their designation as a separate species. There are some variations in patterning and scalation between them and other cobras. [Source: Wikipedia]

Chinese cobra

Brown banded cobras are medium-sized snakes, with adults measuring of 69 to 137 centimeters (27–54 inches) in length. They resemble monocled cobras, due to the predominantly monocellate marking on their hood. They are typically brown, with varying shades across the length of the body. Juveniles and smaller and tend to have darker dorsal and ventral coloration. They be differentiated from monocled cobras kaouthia by the regular narrow crossbands on the middle to hind regions of the dorsal scales, and by the dorsal surface of the tail which is buff with dark fringes.

Brown banded cobras have been collected from tropical and subtropical regions of southwestern China, between 1,000–1,400 meters (3,300–4,600 feet). They prefer gentle slopes with open bush and forest edges. They are likely found in similar habitats in northern Myanmar, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. Brown banded cobras have a wide range of prey, including amphibians, snakes, birds, and small mammals, and has been reported to enter human dwellings in Yunnan Province to feed on chicks. Several individuals were found inhabiting abandoned termite nests during winter in Menglian County.

Not much is known about this venom of brown banded cobras. Its fangs are short and firm like other cobra species, but are not altered in a functional capacity to spit venom. It is an aggressive species, and was one of the most significant causes of snakebite in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province from 2007 to 2014.

Chinese Cobras

Chinese cobras (Naja atra) are also called Taiwan cobras. Found in southern China, northern Laos, Taiwan, northern Vietnam and among of the most prevalent venomous snakes in China, they are medium-sized snakes, usually 1.2 to 1.5 meters (3.9 to 4.9 feet) long, with individuals reaching two meters (6.6 feet) being recorded but rare. They typically reside in woodlands, shrublands, grasslands, and mangroves but are adaptable and can be found in a variety of habitats. Adults can be very aggressive, but the younger tend to be more aggressive as they are more nervous to the things surrounding them. Even so they usually avoid confrontation with humans. These snake are diurnal (active during the day) and most active at dusk and dawn. They were were the subject of a snake-bite study by OF Wong and colleagues published in a 2010 "Hong Kong Medical Journal."

range of the Chinese cobra

Chinese cobras are iridescent black with a number of yellow distant transversal double lines. Their front side is pearly colored. The back side is usually brown, grey or black. The hood mark shape is variable — but typically a spectacle, mask to horseshoe or O- shape — and is often linked to light-colored throat area on at least one side. The throat area usually has a pair of clearly defined lateral spots. The Chinese cobra is sometimes confused with the monocled cobra, can be distinguished by having lower ventral and subcaudal scale counts, particularly when sex is taken into account. Gravid female Chinese cobras lay between 6 and 23 eggs sometime between May through to the end of July. [Source: Wikipedia]

Chinese cobras are highly venomous. The murine LD50 values of its venom are 0.29 milligrams per kilogram IV and 0.53 milligrams per kilogram—0.67 milligrams per kilogram SC. The average venom yield from snake farm snakes is about 250.8 milligrams (80 milligrams dry weight). Local symptoms in Chinese cobra bite victims include wound darkening, localized redness and swelling, pain, insensibility, and invariably blisters and necrosis. The following systemic symptoms may also occur: chest discomfort, fever, sore throat, difficulty in swallowing, loss of voice, weak feeling in limbs, walking haltingly, general ache, lockjaw, and difficulty in breathing. Fatality occasionally occurs. The antivenom is widely available and deaths are much rarer than they used to be.

Indochinese Spitting Cobras

Indochinese spitting cobras (Naja siamensis) are also called Thai spitting cobras, black and white spitting cobras and Siamese spitting cobras. Found in Southeast Asia in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Myanmar and regarded as irritable snakes that readily spits at perceived threats, they are medium-sized and more slender than other cobras. Adults can weigh 1.6 kilograms and average between 0.9 to 1.2 meters (3.0 to 3.9 feet) in length, and can reach lengths of 1.6 meters (5 feet), although this is unusual. considered rare. Their body color ranges from grey to brown to black, with white spots or stripes, which may be so widespread they covers the majority of the snake. Black and white ones are common in central Thailand; those from western Thailand are mostly black; and those from elsewhere are usually brown. The hood mark can be spectacle-shaped, irregular or missing altogether, especially in adults. [Source: Wikipedia]

Indochinese spitting cobras have a similar habitat and are similar in size and appearance to monocled cobra. What sets them apart is that they are "true spitters". They commonly spit and eject a "mist" of venom rather than a "stream" like that of most other "spitting cobras". The reported spitting range of Indochinese spitting cobras is approximately one meter (3.3 feet) — the lowest of any of the spitting cobras.

Indochinese spitting cobra

Indochinese spitting cobras usually feed on rodents, toads, and other snakes and are found in a range of habitats including lowlands, hills, plains, woodlands and jungles. They are sometimes attracted to human settlements because often many rodents can be found there. Indochinese spitting cobras are primarily nocturnal. Their temperament can vary depending on the time of day. When they are threatened during the day they generally slither away to the safety of the nearest burrow but when they are threatened at night they can be aggressive and are more likely to stand their ground, rear up, display their hood and spit venom. If spitting venom doesn't deter the threat they may strike and bite as a last resort. When biting, they tends to hold on and chew viciously.

Like most other spitting cobras, venom of Indochinese spitting cobras is primarily a postsynaptic neurotoxin and cytotoxin that disrupts the nervous system and causes tissue-death). As is true with all cobras, venom toxicity is affected by on different such as diet and locality. In a study of specimens from Thailand, Fischer and Kabara (1967) listed a value of 0.35 milligrams per kilogram via IP route. Another study gave an LD50 range 1.07-1.42 micrograms per gram of mouse body weight. Bite symptoms include pain, swelling and necrosis around the wound. The bite of this snake is potentially lethal to an adult human. Deaths, which generally happen due to paralysis and consequent asphyxiation, mainly occur in rural areas where the procurement of antivenin is difficult. If the snake spits venom into the eyes of an individual, the individual will experience immediate and severe pain as well as temporary and sometimes even permanent blindness. In a national hospital survey of snakes responsible for bites in Thailand, 10 percent of all dead snakes brought by snake-bitten patients were Indochinese spitting cobras. Neurotoxic signs (ptosis and difficulty in breathing) were observed in 12 of the 114 cases (10.5 percent). Local swelling and necrosis were common.

Mandalay Spitting Cobras

Mandalay spitting cobra

Mandalay spitting cobras (Naja mandalayensis) are also known as Burmese spitting cobras and Mandalay cobras. Endemic a relatively small area of the Dry Zone in central Myanmar, they one of the smaller cobra species, with adults generally ranging in length from one to 1.2 meters (3.3 to 3.9 feet) and sometimes grow to 1.4 meters (4.6 feet). They mainly prey on toads and frogs but also take other snakes, small mammals and occasionally even fish.

Mandalay spitting cobras are yellowish-brown to dull brown in color, with darker brownish mottling. The belly is pale with some dark speckling. They are often dark under the chin and throat, followed by a more pale clear area, then by two or three dark bands across the back of the hood. There are no obvious markings on the hood, although a spectacle-shaped hood mark may be present, especially in some juveniles. Like other spitting cobra species, they possess a pair of fixed front upper fangs that are highly modified for "spitting" venom.

Mandalay spitting cobras are predominantly nocturnal, hunting at dusk or night. They spend the day being largely immobile or basking in the sun. Their spitting behaviour is similar to that of the Indochinese spitting cobra described above. Mandalay spitting cobras are jittery and defensive snakes, quickly raising their forebodies and spreading a broad hood when faced with a threat. A slight provocation can causes them to spit. The venom can accurately be ejected two meters (6.6 feet). When threatened these snakes often also charge forward towards the threat while hissing loudly and trying to bite. Nothing is known about the venom of Mandalay spitting cobras but is is assumed it has cytotoxic and post-synaptic neurotoxic properties like that of similar species.

Philippine Cobras

Philippine cobras (Naja philippinensis) are also called Philippine spitting cobras or northern Philippine cobras. Native to the Philippine islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Catanduanes, and Masbate and perhaps some other other neighboring islands, they possess the second most toxic venom of the 34 recognized cobra species and inhabit low-lying plains, forests, open fields, grasslands, dense jungle, agricultural fields, and human settlements. They are fond of water and are often seen close to ponds, rivers, or large puddles of water and prey on small mammals, small lizards, frogs, eggs, small birds, and other snakes, with small rodents such as mice and small rats making up the majority of their diets. These snakes are called ulupong in Tagalog, carasaen in Ilocano. [Source: Wikipedia]

Philippine cobra

Philippine cobras are stocky, medium-length snakes. Their average length is 1.0 meter (3.3 feet). And can grow to lengths of 1.6 meters (5.2 feet). It is said that individuals on Mindoro Island can attain lengths of two meters (6.6 feet), but these claims are unconfirmed. Adult snakes are uniformly light to medium brown; juveniles tend to be a darker brown. Predators of Philippine this species include humans, eagles, other raptors, king cobras, and mongooses. Large rats that have been bitten by these snakes have been known to fight bac and fatally wound the snakes by scratching, biting, or even poking one or both of the snake's eyes out perform it succumbs to cobra’s venom.

The Caspian cobra (N. oxiana) of Central Asia is the most venomous cobra species. According to a 2019 study by Kazemi-Lomedasht et al involving mice, the murine LD50 via intravenous injection (IV) value for Caspian cobra was estimated to be 0.14 milligrams per kilogram. The Philippine cobra has a LD50 value of 0.18 milligrams per kilogram. Data on venom yield of 150 milked Philippine cobra specimens (69 males; 81 females) gave an overall average venom yield per cobra per extraction of 0.33 ml (wet) or 70.1 milligrams (dried).

The venom of the Philippine cobra is a powerful postsynaptic neurotoxin that affects the nervous system and respiratory function and can cause respiratory paralysis as the neurotoxins interrupt the transmission of nerve signals to muscles. Research has shown Philippine cobra venom is purely a neurotoxin. It has no apparent necrotizing elements or cardiotoxins like other cobra venoms. These snakes are also capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target up to therre meters (9.8 feet) away.

Possible symptoms of Philippine cobra bites include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. Often there are few local signs other than the bite marks. A study of 39 patients envenomed by the Philippine cobra was conducted in 1988. Neurotoxicity occurred in 38 cases. Complete Respiratory failure developed in 19 patients, and often developed very rapidly. In three cases, apnea (a brief period when breathing stops) occurred within just 30 minutes of the bite. There were two deaths, both in patients who were moribund upon arrival at the hospital. Three patients developed necrosis, and 14 individuals with systemic symptoms had no local swelling at all.

Samar Cobras

Samar cobra

Samar cobras (Naja samarensis) are also called Peters' cobras, southern Philippine cobras and Visayan cobras. Native to the southern Philippine islands of Mindanao, the Visayas, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Camiguin, they are spitting cobra that can reach 1.4 meters in length. Their coloring varies from black and yellow to green and their habitat varies from mountainous jungle to tropical plains. [Source: Wikipedia]

Samar cobras are the easternmost cobra species. Like Philippine cobras, Samar cobra feeds mostly on small rodents such as rats and mice. They will also prey upon frogs and smaller reptiles. Since their main food sources are attracted to rice paddies and human settlements, these cobras often comes into conflict with people.

Samar cobras are noted for their nervous behavior, and are quick to strike as well as spray venom, which is generally aimed towards the face and eyes. However, the cobra is more reluctant to spit venom than the Philippines cobra. If venom gets in the eyes, it causes extreme pain and mechanical damage to the eyeball. If not properly flushed out, it can result in permanent blindness due to its tissue destroying properties. The venom of Samar cobras has LD50 of 0.2milligrams per kilogram via intravenous injection (IV).

Equatorial Spitting Cobras

Equatorial spitting cobras (Naja sumatrana) also called the Malayan spitting cobras, golden spitting cobras, Sumatran spitting cobras and Palawan spitting cobras. Found in Brunei, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo, Bangka, Belitung), Malaysia, Palawan in the Philippines (), southern Thailand, Singapore, they are variably colored spitting cobras and can spit venom in the eyes of prey or predators up 1.5 meters (five feet) away. The venom shocks and momentarily blinds animal leaving them vulnerable to a fanged attack. Local people often wear shiny pendants that they hope the snake will confuse for eyes.

Equatorial spitting cobra

Equatorial spitting cobras average between 0.9 to 1.2 meters (3.0 to 3.9 feet) in length, though they can reach up to 1.5 meters (4.9 feet). They have no hood marks and coloration varies based where they live: with a yellow form commonly found in Thailand and Northern Peninsular Malaysia, and a black form found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and the islands where it occurs in Indonesia and the Philippines. Juveniles and adults also tend to be of different color.

Equatorial spitting cobras have been found at elevations up to about 1,500 meters (4,900 feet). They mainly reside in primary and secondary tropical forests and dense jungle terrain) but also are encountered in gardens, parks, and in urban areas where they may come in contact with humans. They are active mainly during the day and feed mainly on rodents and frogs, but occasionally eat other snakes, lizards and small mammals. Though not known for being particularly aggressive but do readily spit venom, even from up in the trees, when they are cornered or threatened. They also strike and bite. Equatorial spitting cobra venom contain neurotoxins, cardiotoxins and cytotoxins that affect the paralyze nervous system, affect the heart and can cause tissue death (necrosis).

Javan Spitting Cobras

Javan spitting cobras (Naja sputatrix) are also called Indonesian cobras and Komodo spitting cobras. Found in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia, including Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Alor East Timor, Komodo, and neighboring islands, they are a variably colored spitting species. They are very defensive and readily spits out venom when they feel threatened. Mainly nocturnal, they prey predominantly on small mammals such as small rats and mice, but do take frogs, other snakes, and lizards. Herpetologist Shine Boeadi, in a study published in 1998, measured and dissected 80 Javan specimens of this species and found that most prey items were mammals. [Source: Wikipedia]

The Java spitting cobras are medium- to large-sized snakes. Adults average about 1.3 meters (4.3 feet) in size and reach 1.85 meters (6.1 feet) in length. The coloration and pattern differences on Javan individuals are significantly different from those on other islands. Javan adults are usually yellowish, brown or blackish in color, while juveniles often have throat bands and lateral throat spots. Specimens do not always have hood marks, but when there is one, it is most often chevron-shaped.

Javan spitting cobras

Javan spitting cobras are found mostly in tropical forests and wet forest, but the species adapts well to a wide variety of habitats including arid regions, dry woodlands, and cultivated hill country. On the island of Komodo, they have been observed in dry savannas and deciduous monsoon forests, where they are preyed upon by Komodo dragons Mating occurs during the dry season (August to October). Females often lay eggs at the end of the dry season in November or the very beginning of the wet season. Generally, 13 to 19 eggs air laid per clutch. The incubation period is about 88 days.

The LD50 or (median lethal dose) of the crude venom of Javan spitting cobras is 0.90 milligrams per kilogram IV (0.59-1.36 milligrams per kilogram). The most significant constituents of the venom include high-molecular-weight proteins and enzymes, phospholipase A2 enzymes, postsynaptic neurotoxins and polypeptide cardiotoxins. It is potent but particularly fast-acting. Like all cobra species, Javan spitting cobra contains postsynaptic neurotoxins, which disrupt the nervous system, but its main components are cardiotoxins, with affect the heart, with cytotoxic activity which cause tissue damage. The venom also has a strong anticoagulant but few human fatalities are attributed to these cobras.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Animal Diversity Web animaldiversity.org ; National Geographic, Live Science, Natural History magazine, David Attenborough books, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Discover magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Wikipedia, The Guardian, Top Secret Animal Attack Files website and various books and other publications.

Last updated February 2025