MACAQUES IN INDIA | Facts and Details

MACAQUES

white-cheeked macaque, discovered and described in 2015.

Six species of macaque live in India. Macaques are medium-size monkeys with stout bodies and strong limbs. There are 23 species in five families and 40 different subspecies. They range across from the Old World from the Atlantic to the Pacific, including Spain, Morocco, Afghanistan Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Japan, but are found mostly in Southeast Asia, Indonesia and India. Forests and mountains have been their traditional habitat but many now live in cities.

Aside from humans, macaques are the most widespread primate genus. By some estimates, in evolutionary terms, the primate line that produced humans separated from macaque line about 25 million years ago. "The macaque is one of the most successful and versatile of all primates,”David Attenborough wrote. “If you wanted to pick a monkey that was bright, adaptable, versatile, resilient, enterprising, tough and capable of surviving in extreme conditions and taking on all comers, the macaque would win hands down.” They do equally well in mountains. marshes, rain forests and cities.

Macaques constitute the genus (Macaca) of gregarious Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. Relatives of guenons, they are primarily frugivorous (preferring fruit), although their diet also includes seeds, leaves, flowers, and tree bark. Some species such as the long-tailed macaque, also called the crab-eating macaque, supplement their diets with small amounts of meat from shellfish, insects, and small mammals. On average, a southern pig-tailed macaque in Malaysia eats about 70 large rats each year. All macaque social groups are arranged around dominant matriarchs. [Source: Wikipedia]

Websites and Resources: Animal Diversity Web animaldiversity.org ; BBC Earth bbcearth.com; A-Z-Animals.com a-z-animals.com; Live Science Animals livescience.com; Animal Info animalinfo.org ; World Wildlife Fund (WWF) worldwildlife.org the world’s largest independent conservation body; National Geographic National Geographic ; Endangered Animals (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) iucnredlist.org

Macaques in India and South Asia

Toque Macaques are mainly brown in color. Their scientific name is M. sinica (Linnaeus, 1771). There are three subspecies: M. s. aurifrons (Pale-fronted toque macaque); M. s. opisthomelas (Highland toque macaque); and M. s. sinica (Common toque macaque). They are native to Sri Lanka. They are 36–53 centimeters (14–21 inches) long, with a 36–53 centimeter (14–21 inch) tail. They live in the forest and eat fruit as well as tree flowers, buds, and leaves. They are endangered. Their numbers are unknown. Their population is declining. [Source: Wikipedia]

Arunachal Macaques are mainly brown in color. Their scientific name is M. munzala. They are native to the Eastern Himalayas. They are 36–77 centimeters (14–30 inches) long, with a 9–20 centimeter (4–8 inch) tail. They live in the forest and eat fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates. They are endangered. Their numbers are around 250. Their population is declining.

Assam Macaques are mainly brown in color. Their scientific name is M. assamensis (McClelland, 1840). There are two subspecies: M. a. assamensis (Eastern Assamese macaque) and M. a. pelops (Western Assamese macaque). They are native to Southeastern Asia. They are 36–77 centimeters (14–30 inches) long, with a 9–20 centimeter (4–8 inch) tail. They live in the forest and eat fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates. They are near-threatened. Their numbers are unknown. Their population is declining.

Bonnet Macaques are brown in color. Their scientific name is M. radiata (Geoffroy, 1812). There are two subspecies: M. r. diluta and is M. r. radiata. They are native to Southern India. They are 36–77 centimeters (14–30 inches) long, with a 9–20 centimeter (4–8 inch) tail. They live in the forest, savanna, and shrubland and eat fruit, foliage, and insects, as well as bird eggs and lizards. They are vulnerable. Their numbers are unknown. Their population is declining.

Arunachal Macaque, only 250 remain

Lion-Tailed Macaques are blackish gray and brown in color. Their scientific name is M. silenus (Linnaeus, 1758). They are native to Southwestern India. They are 40–61 centimeters (16–24 inches) long, with 24–38 centimeter (9–15 inch) tail. They live in the forest and eat fruit, as well as leaves, stems, flowers, buds, fungi, insects, lizards, tree frogs, and small mammals. They are endangered. There are estimated to be around 2,400–2,500 of them. Their population is declining.

Rhesus Macaques brown in color. Their scientific name is M. mulatta (Zimmermann, 1790). They are native to southern and southeastern Asia. They are 45–64 centimeters (18–25 inches) long, with a 19–32 centimeter (7–13 inch) tail. They live in the forest, savanna, and shrubland and eat Fish, crabs, shellfish, bird eggs, honeycombs, crayfish, crabs, spiders, plants, gums and pith. They are a least concern species. Their numbers are unknown.

White-Cheeked Macaques live in northeastern India. Their scientific name is M. leucogenys (Li, Zhao, Fan, 2015). They 36–77 centimeters (14–30 inches) long, with a 9–20 centimeter (4–8 inch) tail. They live in the forest and eat fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates. They are endangered. Their numbers are unknown. Their population is declining.

Rhesus Monkeys

Rhesus monkeys (Scientific Name: Macaca mulatta) are a kind of macaque native to northern India and Pakistan but found throughout South Asua and Southeast Asia. Also known as Rhesus macaques, they can adapt to almost any environment. They streak through bazaars, walk through snow and are as comfortable in city streets as they are in the forest. They often live around temples and are regarded as sacred.

Populations of rhesus monkeys are most commonly found in a broad arc that stretches western Afghanistan, through India to northern Thailand. This species was wll represented in the past in southern China and Tibet, but humans have caused their decline over the past century or so. Because rhesus monkeys is often used for research, today populations are kept in captivity world wide. [Source: Joshua Seinfeld, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

Rhesus monkeys are small-to-medium-size primates. They have grizzled-brown fur on their back and slightly lighter color fur on their front side. The hair is short on the head. The face and buttocks of adults are red. They range in weight from four to 12 kilograms (8.81 to 26.43 pounds) and range in length from 45 to 64 centimeters (17.72 to 25.20 inches). The tail adds an additional 19 to 32 centimeters to the total length.

Rhesus monkeys are a popular zoo animal because of its innate curiosity and active lifestyle. These monkeys are also used extensively for research. They are especially useful in biological, medicinal, and psychological research. Rhesus monkeys is most often used in psychological research when the emphasis is on perception, learning, or behavior. /=\

Rhesus monkeys are the commonest monkeys in India. They make up most of India’s 1.5 million monkeys. Rhesus monkeys live in matriarchal societies, with mothers ranking above their daughters (and supporting them in fights) until they are very old. There is also a hierarchy of matriarchal units that is determined by relations between dominant female in each group. The situation in which family members will come to the aid of a female or not are usually defined by the ranking of the adversary. Rankings are sometime dramatically altered when females are claimed by disease or predators.

Liontail Macaques

lion-tailed macaque male

Lion-tailed macaques (Scientific name: Macaca are found only in India in the Western Ghats mountains. Residing mainly in evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforests and monsoon forests, they usually associated with broadleaf trees, and can be found at elevations up 1,500 meters (4,920 feet). Their lifespan in captivity has been as high as 38 years, with an average of 30 years. In the wild, their expected maximum lifespan is about 20 years. [Source: Nicole Strawder, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

Lion-tailed macaques range in weight from three to 10 kilograms (6.6 to 22 pounds) and range in length from 40 to 61 centimeters (15.75 to 24 inches), with the tail adding an additional 24 to 38 centimeters. Sexual Dimorphism (differences between males and females) is present: Males are larger than females. Males typically weigh between five and 10 kilograms, while females weigh only three to six kilograms. /=\

The body of the lion-tailed macaques is covered with black fur. The tail is long, thin, and naked, with a tuft of black puffy hair at the tip. Both males and females have a grayish lion-like mane of fur that surrounds the face. The face itself is bare and black. Offspring are born with soft, black fur that is replaced with adult fur after two months of age. Lion-tailed macaques have has two incisors, one canine, three premolars, and two molars in each quadrant of the mouth. They have cheek pouches that open beside the lower teeth and extend down the side of the neck. /=\

On the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List they are listed as Endangered. In CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild) they are in Appendix I, which lists species that are the most endangered among CITES-listed animals and plants. Lion-tailed macaques are hunted for its skin and meat. These animals are also used in the pet trade and for medical research. Lion-tailed macaques may raid agricultural fields and orchards and are sometimes shot as pests. They are affected by habitat loss due to the harvesting of firewood, timber, and other forest products and are also subject to inbreeding, resulting from having low numbers in the wild and different troops being separated in small forest fragments. Natural predators include snakes, raptors, and larger carnivores. In the 1980s, efforts were made to increase their population. They were placed put on the Species Survival Plan. Because lion-tailed macaques breed well in captivity, there are now 500 lion-tailed macaques in zoos worldwide.

Liontail Macaque Behavior, Communication and Feeding

Lion-tailed macaques are arboreal (live mainly in trees), diurnal (active mainly during the daytime), motile (move around as opposed to being stationary), sedentary (remain in the same area), territorial (defend an area within the home range), social (associates with others of its species; forms social groups), and have dominance hierarchies (ranking systems or pecking orders among members of a long-term social group, where dominance status affects access to resources or mates). [Source: Nicole Strawder, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

According to Animal Diversity Web: Lion-tailed macaques travel in a family group consisting of 10 to 20 members, but there can be as many as 34 members. Some groups may have as many as three adult males, but there is usually only one dominant male who is responsible for breeding. Lion-tailed macaques are the only macaques in which males use calls to advertise their territorialboundaries. Male macaques are territorial and generally give off a loud call to let entering troops know they are in the area. Two troups encounter one another, one usually moves away without any overt aggression.

range of the lion-tailed macaque

Lion-tailed macaques communicate and sense with vision, touch, sound and chemicals usually detected by smelling. They “have 17 different vocal patterns and many types of body movements used to express communication". In addition, visual communication (through body postures and facial expression), and tactile communication (in the form of grooming, play, mounting, and aggression) occur in macaques. It is likely that some chemical communication occurs, especially as pertains to advertisement of oestrus. /=\

Lion-tailed macaques are primarily omnivores (eat a variety of things, including plants and animals) but their diet consists mainly of fruit. They eat a wide variety of things such as as leaves, stems, flowers, buds, and fungi and occasionally consume insects, lizards, tree frogs, and small mammals. These macaques obtain some of their water by licking dew from leaves. Lion-tailed macaques feed from dawn till dusk, generally, on foods that are closest to their sleeping ground. They prefer to forage quickly for fear of predators. Their cheeck pouches enable them to quickly gather large amounts of food. "When fully extended, their cheek pouches can store an equilivant to their stomach's capacity" Because of they eat a lot of fruit and have the ability to carry fruits in their large cheek pouches, it is likely that these monkeys play at least some role in seed dispersal.

Liontail Macaque Reproduction and Offspring

Lion-tailed macaques are polygynous (males have more than one female as a mate at one time) and engage in year-round breeding. Groups typically contain one male and several females and juveniles. Females can probably reproduce about once per year if conditions are favorable. The average number of offspring is one. [Source: Nicole Strawder, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

According to Animal Diversity Web: When a female is in estrus, swelling occurs in the area under her tail (perineal oestrus swelling) and she emits a courtship call to let males know she is ready to copulate. Courtship generally consists of the male examining the female's genitals and then isolation of the couple from the troop in order to copulate without interruption. Once they have copulated, the two do not stay together.

The average gestation period is 180 days and the average time to independence is four years. On average females reach sexual or reproductive maturity at age five years and males reach sexual or reproductive maturity at age eight years. Although breeding occurs throughout the year, most births coincide with the peak of the wet season when resources are abundant. Newborn macaques weigh between 400 and 500 grams. Females tend to carry the offspring on their abdomens. Males and females reach maturity at different ages, with males maturing later, at eight years of age. Females can produce their first offspring around the age of five years. /=\

Females nurse and care for their young for extended periods while the young learn and grow. When offspring reach adolescence, females generally stay in the social group of their birth, but males leave, and live in nomadic, all-male groups until they are able to defend a harem of their own. Males may establish a new family group or steal one from an old or injured male of another group. Young inherit the territory of their parents, mother or father. /=\

Bonnet Macaques

Bonnet macaques with young in Aziyar Anamalai Tiger Reserve

Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) live in a variety of tropical habitats in the Western Ghat Mountains area of southwest India, including evergreen high forest, dry deciduous forests and in urban, suburban and agricultural areas near humans. They live mainly in trees and are strong swimmers. They are often seen in dry prairies, although that is not their preferred habitat. Bonnet macaques coexist with several primate species, including Nilgiri langurs (hooded leaf monkeys), lion-tailed macaques, and Hanuman langurs. [Source: Monica Brown, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

Bonnet macaques are comfortable living with humans and are most abundant on the outskirts of human settlements. In these areas they often feed on trash and food produced by villagers and visitors. They are often found sleeping and eating in large Ficus trees which line roads near human settlements. Their lifespan is typically 20 to 25 years in the wild; and 25 to 30 years in captivity, with a high of 35 years. Most females in wild populations do not reach the age of menopause, around 27 years old. Lifespan is usually cut short due to predation, car collisions, or disease.

Bonnet macaques range in weight from 3.9 kilograms (light females) to 6.7 kilograms (heavy males). They range in length from 35 to 60 centimeters excluding the 14 centimeter tail. Sexual Dimorphism (differences between males and females) is present: Males are larger than females. /=\ There are two distinct subspecies recognized: dark-bellied bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata radiata) and pale-bellied bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata diluta). As their common name suggests, bonnet macaques have a whirl of hair radiating from the center of the head. They are golden brown or grayish brown in color. They have hairless faces. Female faces are pink.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List classifies them as a species of “Least Concern”. In CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild) they have no special status. Bonnet macaques and other macaque species that live near humans are sometimes considered pests as they can be aggressive, steal and raid crops. Villagers will often sell fruit or rice to tourists specifically to feed macaques. Natural predators of bonnet macaques include leopards, tigers, eagles, crocodiles, dholes, feral dogs, and large snakes. They are also killed by humans. /=\

Bonnet Macaque Behavior

Bonnet macaques are arboreal and terrestrial quadrupeds, although they spend much of their time on the ground. They are typically active during the day. They are scansorial (good at climbing) motile (move around as opposed to being stationary), nomadic (move from place to place, generally within a well-defined range), sedentary (remain in the same area), and social (associates with others of its species; forms social groups). The size of their range territory is 40 hectares to 520 hectares. The average Bonnet macaque troops home has a 50 hectare core area. Daily use patterns are dependent on food distribution and the presence of predators. They may stay in the same general area for several months before exploring a new area. Langur species, lion-tailed macaques, and other bonnet macaque troops have overlapping home ranges and mix without aggression. [Source: Monica Brown, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

According to Animal Diversity Web: Bonnet macaques use lateral-sequence footfall patterns which allows three or more limbs to remain in contact with a branch and reduces lateral swaying. Juvenile bonnet macaques use their 50 to 70 centimeters prehensile tail as an anchor when going down steeply inclined branches or for grasping support. Wrestling and mock attacks are commonly observed in juvenile bonnet macaques. Bonnet macaques are unique in that adult males of all ages regularly join in play. Juveniles and infants repeatedly leap at, kick, cling to, and bite big males, without fear of retribution. /=\

Bonnet macaque range

Bonnet macaques live in multimale-multifemale troops averaging 30 individuals. Females are philopatric (remain in or return to the area of their birth) (remain in natal group) and form kin-bonded subgroups. Males transfer to other troops without a period of solitary life. Female dispersal has also been documented, but seems to be rare. There is a linear ranking order among males and females. /=\

Social grooming is a common behavior in bonnet macaques. Unlike many other primate species, grooming is not a one-way social behavior performed by subordinate individuals on dominant individuals. In bonnet macaques dominant males often spend more time grooming others than do juvenile males. All community members participate in social grooming, which is believed to calm tensions and increase bonding. /=\

During rest or sleep, groups of same-sex bonnet macaques huddle together. Dominant males will clasp juvenile males close to them while adult female mothers will huddle together and leave juveniles, single adult females, and babies to huddle together. Male-male mounting is a common social behavior, the majority of mounting is a dominant male mounting a juvenile. But one third of all observed male-male mounting was a juvenile male mounting a dominant male.

Bonnet Macaque Perception, Communication and Feeding

Bonnet macaques communicate with vision, touch and sound and sense using vision, touch, sound and chemicals usually detected with smell. According to Animal Diversity Web: They use their sensitive hands to gather tactile information on their environment and to participate in grooming. Like many other primates, they have keen vision and can see in color. Vision is relied on heavily to find food, navigate the landscape, and communicate to conspecifics. They have slightly reduced olfaction with narrow, downward facing nostrils. Bonnet macaques use taste to distinguish when fruit is ripe. Alarm calls are an important form of communication. This is a loud vocalization that is emitted in response to detection of a predator. [Source: Monica Brown, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

Social rank is communicated mostly through maturity, which can be difficult to observe. Some studies have resorted to inducing intra-group aggression through artificial feeding to determine dominance relationships. Results demonstrate that dominance is linear in both males and females. "Grinning and clicking" is used to express affection and relieve tension. It is characterized by a wide grin with repeated clicking of the tongue. Dominant and subordinate individuals use this form of communication. "Embracing" occurs when two large males meet. They embrace each other, grip each other’s genitals, and display grinning and clicking behavior. Social tension may be relieved in this greeting behavior. /=\

Bonnet macaque in Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary

Bonnet macaques emit high-pitched alarm calls when predators are sighted. They live in groups, which increases the level of vigilance for predators. The alarm call is produced by all members of the group and sounds like “kern kern”. Once an alarm is sounded the community rushes to the shelter of the tree canopy or a bush. In general, the dominant male is the first to come down. Other members paired in twos or threes follow him. Additional data suggests that bonnet macaques are able to recognize and respond to alarm calls of other primate species in the area. They seem to learn the alarm calls of Nilgiri langurs (also called hooded leaf monkeys, Trachypithecus johnii), Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus), and lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silena) if they are exposed to them frequently enough. Juveniles begin to respond to these alarm calls and the ability to detect them seems to improve with age and experience. Bonnet macaques respond most strongly to alarm calls from their own troop. (Ramakrishnan and Coss, 2000; Sugiyama, 1971) /=\

Bonnet macaque are primarily omnivores (eats a variety of things, including plants and animals). Among the plant foods they eat are leaves, wood, bark, or stems seeds, grains, and nuts fruit nectar flowers. Animal foods include reptiles, eggs, insects. Bonnet macaque populations often rely on food produced by humans. They often inhabit temples where tourists feed them or they take food offerings left at the feet of religious figures. They also raid houses, tourist buses, food stalls, backyard gardens, and large trash piles for food.

Populations that do not live near human settlements eat fruits, foliage, insects, and occasional bird eggs or lizards. One account found that a population mainly ate berries, flowers, and young leaves of Lantana, which blooms year-round. Though fruit and young leaves of pongam, fig, karwanda, acacia, tamarind, and nihm were main food items as well. Their favorite food was reported to be grasshoppers found that nine categories made up their diet: vegetation, fruit, human food, soil, seeds, wood, insect, non-food items, and unidentified items. Temple macaque populations ate more vegetation, human food, soil, wood, non-food and unknown items. Forest populations ate more fruit, insects and seeds.

Bonnet Macaque Mating, Reproduction and Offspring

Bonnet macaques are polygynandrous (promiscuous), with both males and females having multiple partners. They engage in seasonal breeding — breeding once anually. Breeding season varies regionally, but peaks from September to October, resulting in a birthing season around February to April. The average number of offspring is one. [Source: Monica Brown, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]

Unlike other macaque females bonnet macaque females do not have sexual swelling. It has been suggested that the absence of such swellings may be linked to male cohesion. Females do not advertise sexual receptivity, as they have no sexual swellings. Older, dominant males consort and mate with the same female for several days. Younger males spend less time consorting and mate with several females over the same time span. Sexual activity is observed throughout the year and seasonality varies greatly by source and population. However, few matings occur during the dry season, late February through early April.

According to Animal Diversity Web: Bonnet macaques live in multi-male multi-female groups. Group ranking is linear, with older individuals being more dominant. Females are philopatric (remain in or return to the area of their birth), while males disperse to other social groups. There is period in which juvenile males are solitary, as in Japanese and rhesus macaques. Bonnet macaque males form unique bonds. Dominant males tolerate the sexual activity of young males, who begin sexual interactions at two years old and are able to mate at age three. Evidence suggests that young males are primarily partnered with young or sub-dominant females. However, adult and adolescent males are equally sexually active with females in estrous, which may translate to higher reproductive success for adolescent males. The primary difference between adolescent and adult males seems to be access to dominant females. High-ranking males have a tendency to relate and mate with the same female over a period of several days while younger males might mate with several females in a short amount of time. /=\

The average gestation period is 168 days. The weaning age ranges from six to seven months, with the time to independence ranging from nine to 12 months. Females reach sexual or reproductive maturity at 2.7 to 3.3 years. Males reach sexual or reproductive maturity at 2.5 to five years. nfants are kept close to their mother for the first six months to a year of life. They ride on her back or are carried in her arms. The mother provides nourishment by nursing for the first six to seven months. After an infant is weaned it remains close to its mother, as it is still somewhat dependent upon its mother for access to food. By one year old young bonnet macaques are able to fend for themselves. /=\

The mother also provides the majority of protection during this time. She usually keeps the infant safe in her arms and is very protective. If an alarm is sounded when the mother-infant pair is apart, the mother will often put herself in harms way to grab the infant and escape. The whole community contributes to the protection of young. Sometimes young adult males will go by themselves or with several mothers to recover isolated infants. /=\

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Animal Diversity Web animaldiversity.org ; National Geographic, Live Science, Natural History magazine, David Attenborough books, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Discover magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Wikipedia, The Guardian, Top Secret Animal Attack Files website and various books and other publications.

Last updated December 2024