ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN INDIA: DATA, LAND USE, DEFORESTATION

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN INDIA

Environment issues in India include deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; desertification; air pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions and water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides;. Tap water is not potable in many parts of the country. The huge and growing population is overstraining natural resources. There is biodiversity loss. For the environment of India to be sustainable in the long run, it should be broad-based and inclusive of a large part of the region's labor force. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

India's wonderfully diverse geographical features, encompassing everything from snowy peaks to deserts to rainforest, are at risk from environmental damage, with population pressures the root cause. Many local groups have organized to fight pollution and protect wildlife.

India is vulnerable to various natural hazards, particularly cyclones and annual monsoon floods, and various combinations of poverty, population growth, increasing individual consumption, industrialization, infrastructural development, poor agricultural practices, and resource maldistribution have led to substantial human transformation of India’s natural environment.

India has a large population that depends on the productivity of primary resources and whose economic growth relies heavily on industrial growth. Civil conflicts involving natural resources—most notably forests and arable land—have occurred in eastern and northeastern states. By contrast, water resources have not been linked to either domestic or international violent conflict as was previously anticipated by some observers. Possible exceptions include some communal violence related to distribution of water from the Kaveri River and political tensions surrounding actual and potential population displacements by dam projects, particularly on the Narmada River. [Source: Library of Congress, 2004*]

International environmental agreements: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protection, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 2006, Wetlands, Whaling. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

India Environmental Rankings and Statistics

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India ranked second to last — 176th out of 177 countries — in the 2026 Environmental Performance Index (EPI), with an overall score of 27.46 out of 100, compared to top-ranked Estonia, with a score of 74.79. and last place Laos with a score of 21.8. The EPI ranks countries on the basis of things like maintaining and improving air and water quality, maximizing biodiversity and cooperating with other countries on environmental problems. Prepared by researchers at Yale and Columbia in cooperation with the World Economic Forum, it is based on 47 indicators across 12 issue categories, including the number of children with respiratory diseases, fertility rates, water quality, overfishing, emissions of greenhouses gases, and the export of sulfur dioxide, a key component of acid rain. [Source: Environmental Performance Index epi.yale.edu ]

India scored 49.6 points out of 100 on the Happy Planet Index and ranked 65th out of the 147 evaluated countries. Compiled by the British think-tank New Economics Foundation, It measures people’s well-being and their impact on the environment through data on life satisfaction, life expectancy and the amount of land required to sustain the population and absorb its energy consumption.. happyplanetindex.org/countries]

Carbon dioxide emissions: 2.821 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (2023 estimate); from coal and metallurgical coke: 2.054 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (2023 estimate); from petroleum and other liquids: 642.909 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (2023 estimate); from consumed natural gas: 124.226 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (2023 estimate). Methane emissions: energy: 8,217.3 kilotonnes (2022-2024 estimate); agriculture: 17,971 kilotonnes (2019-2021 estimate); waste: 4,773.7 kilotonnes (2019-2021 estimate); other: 644.6 kilotonnes (2019-2021 estimate). Particulate matter emissions: 55.6 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook +]

Total renewable water resources: 1.911 trillion cubic meters (2022 estimate). Total water withdrawal: municipal: 56 billion cubic meters (2022 estimate); industrial: 17 billion cubic meters (2022 estimate); agricultural: 688 billion cubic meters (2022 estimate). +

Waste and recycling: municipal solid waste generated annually: 189.75 million tons (2024 estimate); percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 17.8 percent (2022 estimate).

Land Issues in India

Land Use: agricultural land: 60.1 percent (2023 estimate); arable land: 51.8 percent (2023 estimate); permanent crops: 4.9 percent (2023 estimate); permanent pasture: 3.4 percent (2023 estimate); forest: 24.4 percent (2023 estimate); other: 15.5 percent (2023 estimate). Urbanization: urban population: 36.4 percent of total population (2023); rate of urbanization: 2.33 percent annual rate of change (2020-25 estimate).

Land cover map made by the European Space Agency

An estimated 60 percent of cultivated land suffers from soil erosion, waterlogging, and salinity. It is also estimated that between 4.7 and 12 billion tons of topsoil are lost annually from soil erosion. Salinization affects 11 percent of the irrigated land in India. An estimated 7 million acres of land has been damaged by salt. Saltwater intrusion is a problem in some coastal areas. Mangroves have been cut down and underground water has been tapped out. [Source: Library of Congress, 2004*]

Rice, the largest crop, is grown wherever conditions permit. As of the mid-1990s, 60 percent of arable land had been damaged by grazing livestock, deforestation, misuse of agricultural chemicals, and salinization. The environmental effects of intensive urbanization are evident in all major cities. Calcutta, once a symbol of urban blight, has improved greatly. Most of the city now has water purification and sewer services. Similar improvements have been made in other major cities through the Central Scheme for Environmental Improvement in Slum Areas, which was launched in 1972 and provided funding for sewers, community baths, latrines, road paving, and other services. [Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Forests in India

Forest area covers 19.4 percent of India’s geographic area (63.7 million hectares). Nearly half of the country’s forest cover is found in the state of Madhya Pradesh (20.7 percent) and the seven states of the northeast (25.7 percent); the latter is experiencing net forest loss. Satellite imagery s showed that India has gained a forest area of 5,871 square kilometers (2,267 square miles) between 2010 and 2012. However, the increase was not even throughout the country. In some places, forests land is still being lost to development projects like dams, industries, roads and agriculture. [Source: Library of Congress, 2004]

Forest cover in India: A) in 1990: 63,939 square kilometers; B) in 2000: 67,554 square kilometers; C) in 2005 67,701 square kilometers: Change in forest cover between 1990 and 2000; plu 362 square kilometers; Change in forest cover between 2000 and 2005: plus 29 square kilometers [Source: Mongabay mongabay.com]

Until recently, the forests in the rainy areas of northeastern India were inaccessible and tribal people considered the forest sacred and off limits. The forest preserved steams and water tables and cooled the air. But in recent years improved roads have meant once off limits areas are accessible. Forest have been encroached upon by outsiders and the forest have been cut down. The top soil has been washed away by the heavy rains at an alarming rate. The conversion of many people to Christianity has meant the belief in the sacredness of the forest has been lost. New arrivals and long time residence

Some 95 percent of India's forest belong to the state. Many forests are claimed for the construction of industrial complexes and dams because they are built where streams and rivers are and they are in the forests. Over 18 square-miles of prime grazing land in Corbett National Park was submerged by a dam, causing the animals to concentrate in other parts of the park, over grazing the land. To meet the demand for wood large tracts of forest have been cleared to make way for plantations of fast growing trees. Teak, eucalyptus and pine are grown. Eucalyptus is prized by foresters because it grows exceptionally fast, but avoided by wildlife because it doesn't bear any fruit or berries. [Source: John Putman, National Geographic September 1976]

Deforestation in India

Forest cover change map of India: 1930–2013 Researchgate

Between 1880 and 2013, India lost around 40 percent of its forest cover. A third of its wetlands disappeared in the past few decades, and a third of its grasslands in just a ten-year span. A fifth of its tree species may be threatened with extinction. [Source: Dorothy Wickenden, The New Yorker, December 12, 2022]

Forest cover in India has declined because of harvesting for fuel wood and the expansion of agricultural land. Between 1900 and today half of India's forests have vanished, most was converted into farms, the rest mostly to pastures. Forests covered 40 percent of India in 1900. Now the figure is 19 percent of which only 3 percent reserved for wildlife. .[Source: Library of Congress, 2004]

Deforestation was bad in the 1980s and slowed down and was mitigated by reforestation in 1990s and 2000s but appears to have picked up in recent years. During the 1980s deforestation was especially bad in the Himalayan watershed areas were it aggravated the danger of flooding. At that time India lost an average of 1,471 square kilometers (568 square miles) of forest per year. India also lost 50 percent of its mangrove area between 1963 and 1977. [Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

According to satellite data India st one point lost more than 12,140 square kilometers (4,687.5 square miles) of forest, an area a little larger than Connecticut, every year. India’s billion plus people and billion plus head of domestic livestock have been blamed. Suburban sprawl is increasing deforestation rates. Deforestation in the northeast has led to declining rainfalls and increased rates of erosion. After a forest has been cleared for firewood the sun burns off the ground cover previously protected by the shade of trees and monsoon rains carry away the top soil. Without the top soil, the rains quickly runs of into rivers and streams. Without trees the water table drops.

The Indian government has let villagers turn once vibrant forest into desert because they have no other alternative to offer the villagers. Patches of forest along Western Ghats and on Andaman islands have been disrupted by logging, forest farmers and landless poor. In the last half of teh 20th century. timber company and farmers felled more than two thirds of the hill forests in the Himachel Pradesh. In Madhya Pradesh, the World Bank funded a program for plantations of fast-growing trees established in areas cleared of tropical rain forests. On the coasts poor farmers have cleared forests and mangroves and are digging holes for shrimp farms. [Source: John Putman, National Geographic September 1976]

Only Brazil Lost More Forest Than India Between 2015 and 2020

India lost an average of about 668,400 hectares (1.65 million acres) of forest each year between 2015 and 2020, according to a 2023 report, giving it the second-largest amount of forest loss among countries during that period after Brazil. The report linked the loss partly to population growth and the expansion of infrastructure and development projects. [Source: Mimansa Verma, Quartz, April 17, 2023]

Forest land was increasingly diverted for non-forest uses. Between 2018 and 2023, India’s Environment Ministry approved the use of about 88,903 hectares (219,700 acres) of forest land for projects including roads, mining, irrigation, transmission lines, railways, and defense facilities. Roads accounted for the largest share, followed by mining and irrigation.

Environmentalists argued that rapid infrastructure development was contributing to ecological damage in some areas. The land-subsidence crisis in Joshimath, Uttarakhand, in January 2023 affected thousands of residents and raised concerns about the environmental effects of hydropower and other construction projects in the Himalayan region.

The government said tree planting and afforestation programs would compensate for forest diverted for development. However, questions were also raised about the accuracy of India’s official forest-cover figures. A 2023 investigation found that some buildings and developed areas were classified as forest in official maps, highlighting difficulties in accurately measuring forest loss and assessing the effectiveness of afforestation efforts.

Sand Mining in India

Sand mining in India has expanded rapidly alongside the country’s construction and infrastructure boom. Sand is widely used in offices, factories, shopping malls, high-rise apartments, schools, roads and other construction projects. The Washington Post reported in 2012 that India officially used more than 400 million tons of sand for construction each year, while environmental activists estimated that illegal mining pushed the actual figure above 1 billion tons. The scale of demand placed increasing pressure on rivers, creeks and other sources of construction sand. Environmental specialists warned that India lacked an adequate regulatory and monitoring framework for extracting sand sustainably. [Source: Rama Lakshmi, Washington Post, May 19, 2012; Amita Kanekar, Hindustan Times, March 30, 2016]

The Vaitarna creek near Narangi, north of Mumbai, was described as a major site of sand extraction. Dredging boats operated throughout the day, while workers piled excavated sand along the banks for transportation to construction sites in Mumbai. Some workers removed sand manually from boats, while others dived into the river to collect it. Mechanized boats equipped with suction pumps could extract sand much more rapidly than manual laborers. The use of heavy machinery raised concerns that extraction was occurring faster than natural processes could replenish the sand.

Sand extraction was not limited to large mechanized operations. In Narangi, local laborers collected sand using fishing boats, wooden platforms and buckets, while other workers entered the water to remove deposits manually. These activities were part of a broader network in which excavated sand was transported by trucks to nearby urban construction markets. The rapid movement of trucks from extraction areas demonstrated the close connection between rural mining sites and expanding cities. The construction boom therefore created strong economic incentives to continue extracting sand from waterways.

The source material focuses primarily on river and creek sand rather than direct mining of ocean beaches. It describes sand extraction in the Vaitarna creek and other waterways, as well as environmental effects in coastal areas. In particular, excessive excavation was associated with damage to coastal agricultural soils and the decline of mangrove forests near fragile creeks. Farmers also reported that river water had entered rice-growing areas after excessive sand removal. Thus, although the supplied sources do not provide a detailed account of beach-sand mining itself, they show how extraction from waterways connected to coastal environments could affect beaches, farms, mangroves and surrounding ecosystems.

The demand for sand was closely linked to India’s rapid urbanization and infrastructure development. At the time of the Washington Post report, India had one of the world’s largest construction industries, and the government planned major infrastructure investment. Industry representatives acknowledged that construction would need to expand substantially to meet population growth and rising demand. The resulting pressure created incentives to move from one extraction site to another when deposits became depleted. The issue therefore involved not only individual mining operations but also the larger question of how India could supply construction materials without exhausting natural resources.

Consequences of Sand Mining in India

Excessive sand mining can affect groundwater because sand functions as a natural aquifer and contributes to the recharge of waterways. Ecologists cited in the source reported that unauthorized extraction had reduced river recharge and contributed to declining groundwater levels in some areas. Villagers in areas surrounding the Vaitarna reported that wells were drying up. The removal of large quantities of sand could also alter the physical characteristics of river channels. These changes increased concern about the long-term availability of groundwater for local communities. [Source: Rama Lakshmi, Washington Post, May 19, 2012; Amita Kanekar, Hindustan Times, Mar 30, 2016; Murali Krishnan, DW, September, 2016]

Flooding was another reported consequence of excessive extraction. Villagers said that sand mining increased flood risks, while farmers reported that changes to waterways had allowed river water to reach and damage rice-growing areas. The loss of sand could also affect the stability of infrastructure constructed near rivers. Near Narangi, a bridge across the Vaitarna had to be closed temporarily after a column was damaged and required repairs associated with sand mining. The source also reported that road and railway bridges in other parts of India had experienced reduced stability because of uncontrolled extraction.

Sand mining also affected aquatic and coastal ecosystems. Fishermen in affected areas reported declining fish populations, while mangrove forests near Narangi were reported to be shrinking as dredgers moved through fragile creeks. Mangroves provide important habitat and help protect coastal areas, making their loss an additional environmental concern. Coastal agricultural land could also be affected when changes in waterways allowed saltwater to enter soils. The combined effects placed pressure on fisheries, agriculture, forests and freshwater resources.

The environmental effects were accompanied by social and public-safety problems. Riverside residents sometimes blocked highways to prevent trucks carrying illegally mined sand from leaving extraction areas. Activists who opposed illegal mining were threatened or attacked, according to the source. In Madhya Pradesh, a policeman was killed after being struck by a sand truck while attempting to stop it, while another officer was reportedly targeted by a truck crew. These incidents illustrated the tensions that could develop when illegal extraction became connected to powerful commercial interests.

Those Behind Sand Mining in India and Those Trying to Stop It

The sources describe a network involving construction demand, mining operators, transporters, suppliers and, in some cases, local political and criminal interests. Activist Sumaira Abdulali described a connection among builders, local politicians and what she called “muscle men,” alleging that rules were violated while officials failed to intervene. The demand created by construction projects provided a strong financial incentive for continued extraction. Sand was removed from waterways and transported by trucks to construction markets around major cities. Illegal mining therefore involved more than the workers physically removing sand from rivers and creeks. [Source: Rama Lakshmi, Washington Post, May 19, 2012; Amita Kanekar, Hindustan Times, Mar 30, 2016; Murali Krishnan, DW, September, 2016]

The source also describes the role of government regulation and enforcement. Despite court orders, state laws and village protests, illegal sand extraction continued in several areas. In 2012, the Indian Supreme Court ruled that sand miners were required to obtain permission from the Environment Ministry. The source indicates, however, that some people involved in the construction-material trade believed additional regulations would not necessarily prevent illegal operations. The continuing conflict demonstrated the difficulty of enforcing environmental rules where demand for sand was high and local economic interests were involved.

Local communities were among the most persistent opponents of illegal extraction. In Narangi and other areas, residents protested against sand-laden trucks and complained about damage to farms, wells and fisheries. Activists documented changes in the landscape and challenged mining operations despite threats. Village councils were proposed as a possible means of giving communities greater authority over extraction and monitoring. These efforts reflected a broader demand for local participation in decisions concerning natural resources.

The supplied sources also describe a broader mining conflict in Goa, although this concerns iron ore rather than sand. In Caurem, villagers organized against mining companies and government authorities over alleged over-extraction and violations of mining boundaries. The villagers monitored mining operations, submitted petitions and Right to Information applications, and attempted to stop trucks transporting ore. They argued that mining was damaging the village’s water, agricultural and forest resources. Their activities illustrate how local communities in India have challenged mining operations when they believe government oversight has failed.

Other organizations and institutions have also sought to limit environmentally damaging mining. In Goa, public protests and the work of the Goa Foundation contributed to the suspension of mining in 2012, while the Supreme Court later imposed restrictions on iron-ore extraction and prohibited mining leases within 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The Caurem villagers proposed a cooperative model in which local residents would have a greater role in managing mining and other economic activities.

Ozone Depletion

The use of ozone-layer-depleting chemicals in India and China and to a lesser extent in Indonesia threatens to cancel out progress made in reducing the use of these chemicals in the developed world.

Companies in India continued to produce ozone-damaging CFC-12 gas until fairly recently, taking a advantage of a clause on the Montreal Protocol that allows developing nation to produce the gas until the year 2010. Some of the gas has been smuggled into the United States and used to replenish leaky air conditioners at half the price of new coolants.

Thousands of tons of CFCs is smuggled into India. Much of it comes from Nepal and Bangladesh, where there are less restrictions. The CFCs cost one third less than non-ozone-depleting alternatives. Most of the users are small businesses and factories.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Library of Congress, CIA World Factbook, Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated August 2026