THERAVADA BUDDHIST TEXTS

Writing the Tipitaka

Theravada Buddhism's main scripture is the Tipitaka. The Dhammapada — Sayings of Buddha — is popular: It is part of the Tipitaka. Although these texts are accepted as definitive scriptures, non-Buddhists should understand that they do not contain divine revelations or absolute truths that followers accept as a matter of faith. They are tools that the individual tries to use in their own life.

Theravada Buddhism uses the Tipitaka (Pali Canon) as its official sacred text (See Above). It is comprised of three parts. 1) The first basket is the “Vinaya Piataka” (“Discipline Basket”). This text is made up of simple rules prescribed for people who wish to become devote Buddhists or monks. 2) The second part, the “Sutra Pitaka” (“Teaching Basket”), is comprised of teachings and sayings of Buddha. 3) The third part, The “Abhidhamma Pitaka” (“Metaphysical Basket”) has detailed descriptions of Buddhist doctrines and philosophy. Theravada Buddhist monks consider it important to learn sections of these texts by heart. [Source: BBC]

Theravada Buddhist teachings were written down in Sri Lanka during the A.D. 1st century. They were written in Pali (a language like Sanskrit).The Tipitaka, is a collection of Pali language texts. It forms the doctrinal foundation of Theravada Buddhism, and is the main body of scriptures all Buddhists. Tipitaka is translated as "three" (Ti) "baskets" (pitaka), in the Pali language. The three baskets are: 1) the Basket of (monastic) Discipline; 2) the Basket of Discourses; 3) the Basket of Further Dhamma. They coincide with the three parts of Tipitaka describe above

Theravada Buddhism Websites: Readings in Theravada Buddhism, Access to Insight accesstoinsight.org/ ;
Wikipedia article Wikipedia ; Encyclopædia Britannica britannica.com ; Pali Canon Online palicanon.org ; Vipassanā (Theravada Buddhist Meditation) Wikipedia article Wikipedia ; Pali Canon - Access to Insight accesstoinsight.org ; Forest monk tradition abhayagiri.org/about/thai-forest-tradition ; BBC Theravada Buddhism bbc.co.uk/religion

Tipitaka (Pali Canon)

The Tipitaka, also known as the Pali Canon or Tripitaka, is the earliest extant canon. More than 2,500 years old, it covers a period of two millennia, if the lives of past Buddhas are included, and comprises: 1) the Sutta Pitaka (monastic law or discipline); 2) the Vinaya Pitaka, with the Dharma (Doctrine), or Sutras (the Buddha's discourses); and 3) Abhidhamma (Abhidharma , commentaries or Advanced Doctrine).

The Sutta Pitaka (also referred to as the teachings of the Buddha) is comprised of 30 or so volumes of the Buddha's discourses as well as various instructional and ritual texts. It contains 227 rules monks and 311 of nuns that advise them on how to handle themselves in certain situations and describes the relationships between the Sangha (monk community) and lay people. The 227 rules for monks is called the Patimokkha. It also details how and why the rules were developed.

The Vinaya Pitaka embraces the whole of Buddhist philosophy and ethics and includes the Dhammapada which contains the essence of Buddha's teaching. The Vinaya Pitaka recounts the teachings of the Buddha. It contains more than ten thousand sutras, or teachings, including instructions on conduct and meditation. The Dhammapada is mainly a collection of the Buddha's sayings and teachings, and is referred to often by Buddhists of all schools. The Vinaya also contains narratives of the Buddha's life, rules for rituals, instructions for ordination, and an extensive index of topics covered.

The Abhidamma Pitaka contains supplementary philosophy, religious teaching and instructions on how to seek wisdom and self-knowledge. Three are also songs, poems, and stories from the Buddha's past lives. The scholastic teachings are highly abstract, philosophical texts dealing with all sorts of topics, especially the minutiae that make up human experience. It runs for around 6,000 pages. [Source: Jacob Kinnard, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, 2018, Encyclopedia.com]

The Tipitaka contains approximately four million words and have remained virtually unaltered since they were written down. In addition to the basic texts of the Tipitaka, each text is accompanied by an extensive commentary and often several sub-commentaries that clarify the grammatical and linguistic ambiguities of the text, expand the analysis, and serve as a kind of reader's (or listener's) guide through the sometimes confusing philosophical and ritual points of the book.[Source: Jacob Kinnard, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, 2018, Encyclopedia.com]

History of the Tipitaka

Tipitaka from Sri Lanka

The teachings of the Tipitaka were determined during the First Buddhist Council, held shortly after the Buddha's death. They were passed down orally for more than one hundred years before first being written down around the third century B.C. and were revised after that. Because many of the scriptures are elaborations of the Buddha’s original brief statements by his disciples the Tipitaka is more of a collection of elaborations, explanations and expansions of Buddha’s First Utterance or Discourse. Over the centuries, Buddhists scholars have reshaped these texts as Christians have with the Bible. In “The End of Suffering: The Buddha in the World”, journalist Pankaj Mishra wrote that Buddha’s dialogues were often “long-winded and repetitious” with “little of the artistry so evident in Plato.”

The Buddha appears to have written little or nothing himself. But he did famously tell his main disciple, Ananda, that after his death the Dharma he left behind would continue to be the present teacher, the "guiding light," for all future Buddhists,The earliest Buddhist writing that we have today date back to a period 150 years after Buddha's death. Early Buddhist literature consisted mostly of records of sermons and conversations involving The Buddha that were recorded in Sanskrit or the ancient Pali language.

Tradition holds that during the first rainy season retreat after the Buddha's death, sometime in the second half of the sixth century B.C., the Buddha's disciples gathered at Rajagriha (modern Rajgir, in Bihar) and began orally collected all of the Buddha's teachings into three sets or "three baskets" (tripitaka; Pali, tipitaka). These three collections form the basis of the Buddhist canon. According to the BBC: Although these texts are accepted as definitive scriptures, non-Buddhists should understand that they do not contain divine revelations or absolute truths that followers accept as a matter of faith. They are tools that the individual tries to use in their own life.

Important Parts of the Tipitaka

The Vinaya Pitaka (the code for monastic life) contains rules followed by Buddhist monks and nuns, who recite the 227 rules twice a month. This "Basket of (monastic) Discipline" is comprised of 1) Rules of discipline for monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis); Suttavibhanga — the 227 rules for monks and 311 rules for nuns; 2) Khandhaka; Mahavagga; Cullavagga; Parivara — Abstract of Vinaya Pitaka in dialogue form; 3) Sutta Pitaka: Basket of Discourses — Discourses of the Buddha; 4) Digha Nikaya: Long Discourses; 5) Silakkhandha-vagga: 6) The Division Concerning Morality (13 suttas); 7) Maha-vagga: The Large Division (10 suttas); 8) Patika-vagga: The Patika Division (11 suttas); and 9) Majjhima Nikaya: Middle-length Discourses;

Other parts of the Tipitaka include Samyutta Nikaya: Grouped Discourses; Sagatha-vagga: contains 11 samyuttas; Nidana-vagga: contains 10 samyuttas; Khandha-vagga: contains 13 samyuttas; Salayatana-vagga: contains 10 samyuttas; Maha-vagga: contains 12 samyuttas; Anguttara Nikaya: Further-factored Discourses; Khuddaka Nikaya: Smaller Discourses; Khuddakapatha: The short passages; Dhammapada: The Path of Dhamma; Udana: Exclamations; Itivuttaka: The Thus-saids; Sutta-Nipata: The Sutta Collection; Vimanavatthu: Stories of the Celestial Mansions; Petavatthu: Stories of the Hungry Ghosts; Theragatha: Verses of the Elder Monks; Therigatha: Verses of the Elder Nuns; Jataka: Birth Stories; Niddesa: Exposition; Patisambhidamagga: Path of Discrimination; Apadana: Stories; Buddhavamsa: History of the Buddhas; Cariyapitaka: Basket of Conduct; Nettippakarana - In Thai and Burmese Tipitaka only; Petakopadesa - In Thai and Burmese Tipitaka only; Milindapanha - In Burmese Tipitaka only; Abhidhamma Pitaka:

Basket of Further Dhamma - Analysis of mind and matter; Dhammasangani: Enumeration of Phenomena; Vibhanga: The Book of Treatises; Dhatukatha: Discussion with Reference to the Elements; Puggalapannatti: Description of Individuals; Kathavatthu: Points of Controversy; Yamaka: The Book of Pairs; Patthana: The Book of Relations;

Theravada Buddhist Doctrine in the Tipitaka

The doctrine of Theravada Buddhism can be found in the three-part Tipitaka. The first of the three baskets (or sections) sets forth the discipline governing the monastic order. The second presents the sermons or discourses of the Buddha and contains the dharma (literally, doctrine). The third comprises the commentaries and explications produced by learned monks in the centuries after the death of the Buddha. It is here that significant differences exist between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. [Source: Library of Congress*] In the first basket, and central to the structure of Buddhist belief, are the doctrines of karma, the sum and the consequences of an individual's actions during the successive phases of his existence, and samsara, the eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Both doctrines were derived from the Indian thought of the Buddha's time, although he invested the concept of karma with very strong ethical implications. Broadly, these ideas taken together assert that evil acts have evil consequences for those committing them, and good acts yield good consequences, not necessarily in any one lifetime, but over the inevitable cycle of births and deaths. A concomitant to the belief in karma and samsara is the view that all forms of life are related because every form originated in a previous one. In the canonical view, but not in the popular one, the entity that undergoes reincarnation is not the soul (although the idea of soul exists) but a complex of attributes--actions and their consequences--that taken together are said to constitute the karma of an individual. It is karma in this sense that survives in another form. *

The second basket, containing the dharma, provides the essentials that define the way to nirvana. The foundation of the system lies in the Four Noble Truths: suffering exists, it is caused by craving or desire, it can be made to cease, and it can be brought to an end by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The last Noble Truth contains the eight precepts to be followed by Buddhists: right view, or having an understanding of the Four Noble Truths; right thought--freedom from lust, ill will, and cruelty; right speech, which means abstention from lying, gossiping, harsh language, and vain talk; right action, by which killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct are proscribed; right livelihood, which requires an individual's sustenance be earned in a way that is not harmful to living things; right effort, by which good thoughts are encouraged and bad thoughts are avoided or overcome; right mindfulness, or close attention to all states of the body, feeling, and mind; and right concentration, that is, concentration on a single object to bring about a special state of consciousness in meditation. Following the Noble Eightfold Path conscientiously is necessary if a person aspires to become an arhat (usually translated as saint), ready for nirvana. *

Virtually from the beginning, however, the Buddha acknowledged that it would be difficult for a layperson to follow all aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path singlemindedly. The conditions appropriate to such pursuit are available only to mendicant monks. The demands on the layperson are therefore less rigorous, and most interpret the doctrine as requiring acts gaining merit so that the layperson may achieve a condition in the next life that will allow stricter attention to the requirements of the path. *

The acts that bring merit are, in principle, those that conform as closely as possible to the ethical demands of the Noble Eightfold Path. Acts that support the brotherhood of monks are also included. Consequently, providing material support, e.g., food, to the members of the sangha, showing them deference, underwriting and participating in certain ceremonies, and supporting the construction and maintenance of the wat have come to be the chief methods of gaining merit. The powerful ethical content of the Noble Eightfold Path is reduced to five precepts or injunctions. The laity are expected to refrain from the following: taking life, stealing, lying, engaging in illicit sexual relations, and drinking intoxicating liquors. Thai Buddhists--like many followers of other religions--select only a few of the Buddha's teachings to guide them. Many Buddhist principles, while not actually practiced, are venerated as ideals. *

According to some observers, most Thai place little emphasis on the achievement of nirvana, whether as a final state after many rebirths or as an interior condition. What is hoped for is an improved condition in this life or the next. In Thai thinking, the ideas of merit and demerit so essential to the doctrine of karma are linked linguistically to those of good and evil; good and merit are both bun; evil and the absence of merit are bap. The Theravada idea of karma (and the Thai peasant's understanding of it) charges the individual with responsibility for good and evil acts and their consequences. Thai do not rely solely on the accumulation of merit, however gained, to bring that improved state into being. Other forms of causality, ranging from astrology to the action of spirits of various kinds, are also part of their outlook. *

Dhammapada

The Dhammapada is the best known and most widely esteemed text in the Pali Tipitaka, the sacred scriptures of Theravada Buddhism. Acharya Buddharakkhita, a translator of The Dhammapada, wrote: “The work is included in the Khuddaka Nikaya ("Minor Collection") of the Sutta Pitaka, but its popularity has raised it far above the single niche it occupies in the scriptures to the ranks of a world religious classic. Composed in the ancient Pali language, this slim anthology of verses constitutes a perfect compendium of the Buddha's teaching, comprising between its covers all the essential principles elaborated at length in the forty-odd volumes of the Pali Canon. [Source: Preface “The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom” translated from the Pali by Acharya Buddharakkhita /*]

“According to the Theravada Buddhist tradition, each verse in the Dhammapada was originally spoken by the Buddha in response to a particular episode. Accounts of these, along with exegesis of the verses, are preserved in the classic commentary to the work, compiled by the great scholiast Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa in the fifth century C.E. on the basis of material going back to very ancient times. The contents of the verses, however, transcend the limited and particular circumstances of their origin, reaching out through the ages to various types of people in all the diverse situations of life. For the simple and unsophisticated the Dhammapada is a sympathetic counsellor; for the intellectually overburdened its clear and direct teachings inspire humility and reflection; for the earnest seeker it is a perennial source of inspiration and practical instruction. Insights that flashed into the heart of the Buddha have crystallized into these luminous verses of pure wisdom. As profound expressions of practical spirituality, each verse is a guideline to right living. The Buddha unambiguously pointed out that whoever earnestly practises the teachings found in the Dhammapada will taste the bliss of emancipation.” /*\

“The Theravada Buddhist scholar Bhikkhu Bodhi wrote: “From ancient times to the present, the Dhammapada has been regarded as the most succinct expression of the Buddha's teaching found in the Pali Canon and the chief spiritual testament of early Buddhism. In the countries following Theravada Buddhism, such as Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand, the influence of the Dhammapada is ubiquitous. It is an ever-fecund source of themes for sermons and discussions, a guidebook for resolving the countless problems of everyday life, a primer for the instruction of novices in the monasteries. Even the experienced contemplative, withdrawn to forest hermitage or mountainside cave for a life of meditation, can be expected to count a copy of the book among his few material possessions. Yet the admiration the Dhammapada has elicited has not been confined to avowed followers of Buddhism. Wherever it has become known its moral earnestness, realistic understanding of human life, aphoristic wisdom and stirring message of a way to freedom from suffering have won for it the devotion and veneration of those responsive to the good and the true. [Source: Bhikkhu Bodhi, Introduction of “The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom” translated from the Pali by Acharya Buddharakkhita /*]

Culasunnata Sutta — On Emptiness

Culasunnata Sutta is a lesson on sunyata (emptiness). It begins: 1. Thus I heard: On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Savatthi in the Eastern Park, the Palace of Migara's Mother. 2. Then when it was evening, the venerable Ananda rose from retreat, and he went to the Blessed One, and after paying homage to him, he sat down at one side. When he had done so, he said to the Blessed One: 3. 'Venerable sir, once the Blessed One was living in the Sakyan country. There is a town of the Sakyans called Nagaraka; there I heard and learnt this from the Blessed One's own lips: "Now I abide much in the voiding, Ananda." Venerable sir, was this well heard by me, well apprehended, well attended to and well remembered?' 'Certainly, Ananda, that was well heard by you, well apprehended, well attended to and well remembered. As formerly, so now too, I abide much in the void abiding. [Source: Culasunnata Sutta, at well.com,Internet Archive people.well.com ]

'Ananda, just as the Palace of Migara's Mother is void of elephants, cattle, horses and mares, void of gold and silver, void of the forgathering of women and men, and there is (present) only this non-voidness, that is to say, the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) the community of bhikkhus; so too, without giving attention to perception of village, without giving attention to perception of man, a bhikkhu gives attention to the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of forest. His mind enters into that perception of forest and acquires confidence, steadiness and decision. He understands thus: "Disturbances that would be present dependent on perception of village are not present here, disturbances that would be present on perception of man are not present here, and only this measure of disturbance is present, that is to say, the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of forest." He understands: "This field of perception is void of perception of village." He understands: "This field of perception is void of perception of man.", (and he understands): "There is (present) only this non-voidness, that is to say, the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of forest." So he sees it as void of what is not there, but of what remains there he understands: "There is that still present there." Now this has been for him an alighting upon voidness that accords with what actually is, without perversion of meaning and is pure.
'Again, Ananda, without giving attention to perception of man, without giving attention to perception of forest, a bhikkhu gives attention to the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of earth. His mind enters into that perception of earth and acquires confidence, steadiness and decision. Just as though a bull's hide were freed from folds by stretching it with a hundred pegs, so too, without giving attention to all the ridges and hollows, the river ravines, the tracts of stumps and thorns, the rocky inequalities, on this earth, a bhikkhu gives attention to the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of earth. His mind enters into the perception of earth and acquires confidence, steadiness and decision. He understands thus: "Disturbances that would have been present dependent on perception of man are not present here, disturbances that would be present dependent on perception of forest are not present here, and only this measure of disturbance is present, that is to say, the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of earth." He understands: "This field of perception is void of perception of man." He understands: "This field of perception is void of perception of forest.", (and he understands): "There is (present) only this non-voidness, that is to say, the single state (of non-voidness) dependent on (the presence of) perception of earth." So he sees it as void of what is not there, but of what remains there he understands: "There is that still present there." Now this too has been for him an alighting upon voidness, that accords with what actually is, without perversion of meaning, and is pure.

Sutta Nipata

The Sutta-nipata, or "Discourse-collection," contains some of the oldest and most profound discourses of the Buddha. The complete text has been translated several times into English. The Pali original consists mainly of verse interspersed with some prose passages. The first discourse shows the distinction between the mode of conduct of the bhikkhu and the layman, both regarded as virtuous or good (sadhu). For, as it is said elsewhere: These two ways of life are not the same:
That of a householder supporting a wife
And one without worldly attachments...
As a peacock never approaches the swiftness
of a swan, so a householder cannot imitate a
bhikkhu, a hermit meditating in the forest. [Source: Translated from the Pali by John D. Ireland, purifymind.com]

The lay-follower is given the five precepts of abstaining from killing, stealing and so forth, and then the eight precepts are observed on special occasions (uposatha, "observance days"). Also perhaps it is appropriate to commence with Dhammika's praising the Buddha, for these two, moral discipline and faith in the Buddha, are the basic requisites for making further progress on the Buddhist path.

The next two discourses deal with wrong and right conduct, pointing out the results both courses lead to. One of the essentials for the practice of the Buddha's teaching is having "good friends" and the avoidance of those who hinder one's progress. The best friend is "He from whom one learns the Dhamma" and as such the Buddha is known as the "Good Friend" to all beings.

The next two give the practical training and the direction one should tend towards. Continuous effort is needed to practice the Dhamma and to inspire one there is no better example than the Buddha's own struggle. Then there are two contemplations on the transience of life and the futility of sorrowing over the natural course of events in this world.

Two important discourses follow dealing with the misconception that purity can come from outside without putting forth any effort and with wrongly holding to views and opinions leading to contention and suffering. These two, together with the rest of what follows, are regarded as some of the oldest discourses of the Sutta- and contain much that is difficult to understand.

Text Sources: East Asia History Sourcebook sourcebooks.fordham.edu , Asia for Educators, Columbia University; Asia Society Museum “The Essence of Buddhism” Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius, 1922, Project Gutenberg, Virtual Library Sri Lanka; “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “Encyclopedia of the World's Religions” edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); “Encyclopedia of the World Cultures: Volume 5 East and Southeast Asia” edited by Paul Hockings (G.K. Hall & Company, New York, 1993); BBC, Wikipedia, National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Reuters, AP, AFP, and various books and other publications.

Last updated March 2024