ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN SINGAPORE: SUMATRAN FIRES. WATER, RECYCLING

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN SINGAPORE

NASA image of smoke from Sumatra engulfing Singapore June 19, 2013

The air and water in Singapore are generally very clean. According to a survey of expatriates living in Asia, Singapore, Japan and Malaysia were regarded as the cleanest. while India, China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Hong Kong are regarded as the dirties countries in Asia, while Thailand, South Korea and Taiwan were in the middle.

Major environmental issues in Singapore include water pollution; industrial pollution; limited freshwater resources; waste disposal problems from limited land availability; air pollution; deforestation; and seasonal smoke/haze from forest fires in Indonesia. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

In 2003, only about 4.9 percent of the total land area was protected. Pollution from the oil industry is also a significant problem, with the cities producing around 0.9 million tonnes of solid waste per year. [Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

People are given tax breaks if they buy environmentally-friendly “green” cars such as those with fuel cells. Limited land availability presents waste disposal problems. During the great Indonesia forest fire of 1997, the birds in the bird singing neighborhoods stopped singing and birdowners kept them at home. Singapore has lost much of its original mangrove area. About 85 percent of Southeast Asia’s coral reefs in Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam are severely threatened by human activities such as pollution and overfishing.

Environmental Data for Singapore

Singapore ranks 109th out of 147 countries in the latest Happy Planet Index (HPI), scoring 30.5 out of 100. Compiled by the British think-tank New Economics Foundation, It measures people’s well-being and their impact on the environment through data on life satisfaction, life expectancy and the amount of land required to sustain the population and absorb its energy consumption.

Singapore ranks 47th out of 180 countries in the latest Environmental Performance Index (EPI), with an overall score of 53.0 (compared to ninth ranked Switzerland with a score of 67.8 and the Democratic Republic of Congo in 128th place with a score of 39.5) [Source: Environmental Performance Index, Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy epi.envirocenter.yale.edu ]

The environmental performance index ranks countries on the basis of things like maintaining and improving air and water quality, maximizing biodiversity and cooperating with other countries on environmental problems. Prepared by researchers at Yale and Columbia in cooperation with the World Economic Forum, it is based on 75 measures including the number of children with respiratory diseases, fertility rates, water quality, overfishing, emissions of greenhouses gases, and the export of sodium dioxide, a key component of acid rain.

Carbon dioxide emissions: 238.962 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from coal and metallurgical coke: 2.338 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from petroleum and other liquids: 210.859 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from consumed natural gas: 25.765 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]

Particulate matter emissions: 10 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 estimate).

Waste and recycling: municipal solid waste generated annually: 1.87 million tons (2024 estimate); percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 51.7 percent (2022 estimate).

Urbanization: urban population: 100 percent of total population (2023); rate of urbanization: 0.74 percent annual rate of change (2020-25 estimate). Land use: agricultural land: 0.9 percent (2023 estimate); arable land: 0.8 percent (2023 estimate); permanent crops: 0.1 percent (2023 estimate); permanent pasture: 0 percent (2022 estimate); forest: 22 percent (2023 estimate); other: 77.1 percent (2023 estimate).

Deforestation: Most of Singapore was deforested before it became independent in 1965. Forest cover in 1990:2 hectares per 1,000 hectares; Forest cover in 2000: 2 hectares per 1,000 hectares; Forest cover in 2005 2 hectares per 1,000 hectares: Change in forest cover between 1990 and 2000: 0 ; Change in forest cover between 2000 and 2005: 0 [Source: Mongabay mongabay.com]

Water Issues in Singapore

Singapore does not have enough water to meet the needs of its population. In total, the nation has approximately 0.1 cubic miles of water. Four percent of the annual withdrawal is used for farming and 51 percent for industrial purposes.Pollution from the oil industry is also a significant problem, with the cities producing around 0.9 million tonnes of solid waste per year. Wastewater is treated and recycled to conserve water supplies. [Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Water: Total renewable water resources: 600 million cubic meters (2022). Total water withdrawal: municipal: 198.207 million cubic meters (2022); industrial: 162.624 million cubic meters (2022); agricultural: 0 cubic meters (2022). Sanitation facility access: 100 percent of population (2022 estimate). Drinking water: Proportion of population using piped water: 100 percent. [[Source: CIA World Factbook]

In its early years, Singapore depended on wells for its water supply. By the mid-nineteenth century, however, wells were inadequate to supply the needs of a booming seaport and the ships that called there, and a series of reservoir and waterworks projects were undertaken. By the late 1980s, the water supply system consisted of eighteen raw water reservoirs, twelve service reservoirs, eleven waterworks, and about 4,000 kilometers of pipeline. Although some water came from rainfall trapped in catchment basins, much of the country's supply was imported from Malaysia and piped into the reservoir system. Consequently, water was a precious resource, and domestic and commercial consumers were constantly advised to use it efficiently. [Source: Library of Congress, 1987*]

Environmental Management in Singapore

Responsibility for environmental issues in Singapore lies with the Ministry of the Environment and its Anti-Pollution Unit. Air quality is protected by the Clean Air Act, adopted in 1971 and amended in 1975 and 1980, and the Clean Air (Standards) Regulations of 1975. In 1981, regulations limiting the lead content of gasoline were imposed, and in 1986, emissions standards for motor vehicles were tightened. Air pollution from transport is an issue in the country's expanding urban areas Water quality is regulated through the Water Pollution Control and Drainage Act of 1975 and the Trade Effluent Regulations of 1976.

International environmental agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution; Singapore has signed and ratified all the agreements.

Environmental Issues in Singapore in the 1980s

Singapore's rapid economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s was accompanied both by increased air and water pollution and by increasingly effective government efforts to limit environmental damage. The government established an Anti-Pollution Unit under the Prime Minister's Office in 1970, set up the Ministry of the Environment in 1972, and merged the Anti-Pollution Unit with that ministry in 1983 to ensure unified direction of environmental protection. The new unit, subsequently renamed the Pollution Control Department, had responsibility for air and water pollution, hazardous materials, and toxic wastes. Singapore first moved to limit air pollution, closely monitoring oil refineries and petrochemical complexes and limiting the sulfur content of fuel oil for power plants, factories, and diesel motor vehicles. Because motor vehicles were the main source of air pollution, the government required emissions controls on engines and reduced (but not eliminated) the lead content of gasoline. The government also acted, partly for environmental reasons, to restrict private ownership of automobiles through very high (175 percent) import duties, high annual registration fees, and high charges for the entry of private automobiles to the central business district. [Source: Library of Congress *]

Between 1977 and 1987, the Ministry of the Environment carried out a major program to clean up rivers and streams by extending the sewer system, controlling discharges from small industries and workshops, and moving pig and duck farms to resettlement areas with facilities to handle animal wastes. The success of the program was demonstrated by the return of fish and aquatic life to the lower Singapore and Kallang rivers. Singapore, the world's third largest oil refiner, also acted to prevent the pollution of coastal waters by oil spills or discharges from the many large oil tankers that traversed the Strait of Malacca. The Port of Singapore Authority maintained oil skimmers and other equipment to clean up oil spills, and a comprehensive plan assigned both the oil companies and Singapore's armed forces responsibilities for dealing with major oil spills. *

Singapore's environmental management program was intended primarily to ensure public health and to eliminate immediate hazards to citizens from toxins. Protection of the environment for its own sake was a low priority, and the government did not respond to local conservation societies' calls to preserve tropical forests or mangrove swamps. The pollution control laws gave the authorities wide discretion in dealing with offenders, and throughout the 1970s and 1980s penalties usually were light. Enforcement of the laws often reflected an appreciation of the economic benefits of polluting industries and provided time for industrial polluters to find ways to limit or eliminate their discharges. *

Singapore Chokes on Smoke from as Sumatran Forest Fires

A severe haze in June 2013 caused by forest fires in Indonesia led to some of the worst air pollution levels in nearly 16 years in Singapore, prompting health warnings and disruptions to daily activities. Smoke from fires on Indonesia’s Sumatra island drifted across the Strait of Malacca, covering Singapore’s skyline in thick gray haze. The country’s Pollutant Standards Index (PSI), the main measure of air quality, entered the “unhealthy” range, with readings exceeding 100 and reaching as high as 155 — the highest level recorded since the major regional haze crisis of the late 1990s. Authorities advised vulnerable groups, including children, the elderly, and people with respiratory illnesses, to avoid prolonged outdoor activity. [Source: Satish Cheney, Associated Press, June 18, 2013]

The haze affected public life across Singapore. The military reduced outdoor training exercises, while some parents kept children indoors because of coughing and irritation caused by the smoky air. Offices discussed whether employees should wear protective face masks, and residents closed windows to keep out dust and the strong smell of smoke. Medical clinics and hospitals prepared for an increase in patients suffering from asthma attacks, breathing difficulties, eye irritation, and other haze-related health problems. Doctors noted that previous haze episodes had typically led to a rise in respiratory cases several days after pollution levels increased.

Seasonal haze caused by land-clearing fires has long been a regional problem affecting Singapore and Malaysia. Fires are often started in Indonesia to clear land for agriculture and plantations using slash-and-burn methods, especially during hot and dry weather conditions. Indonesian officials said some of the fires involved peatlands, which are difficult to extinguish and can burn for long periods underground. Singapore offered assistance to Indonesia in combating the fires, while Indonesian authorities stated they were continuing efforts to educate farmers on alternatives to open burning. The recurring haze has periodically created diplomatic tensions in Southeast Asia, with neighboring countries urging stronger enforcement against illegal land-clearing practice

Indonesian forest fires in 1997 and the haze they produced cost Singapore $9 billion in health care costs and disrupted air travel and business. At that time the pollution index reached 226 National Environment Agency says air quality becomes 'very unhealthy' when the index passes 200 The problem occurs in the dry season as a result of forest fires in the sprawling Indonesian archipelago, some of them deliberately started to clear land for cultivation.

Singapore Urged to Cut down on Waste, Increase Recycling Rate

In March 2002, AFP reported: “Singapore should cut down on waste generation and recycle more waste or face being buried under a mountain of garbage, Environment Minister Lim Swee Say said. "We have to find ways to slow down the increase in waste generation. Land is scarce in Singapore. We cannot keep on building more incineration plants and finding more landfill sites," he said at a seminar on the environment. "The only sustainable solution is to cut down on waste generation and speed up waste recycling." [Source: Agence France Presse, March 5, 2002 ]

In 2002, 40 percent of Singapore's waste was recycled. “Under a plan under formulation, the private and public sectors have proposed to raise the recyling rate to between 50 and 60 percent by 2012, improving on an earlier target of between 40-50 percent by 2010. "I think this is achievable, if we all act together and step up our efforts to promote more recycling in the domestic, industrial and commercial sectors," Lim said. Industrial and commercial businesses generate about 50 percent of the waste disposed daily, he added.

“Between 1974 and 2000, Singapore's per capita gross national product had increased about eight times, but the solid waste produced by industries and commerce also rose by the same rate in that period. "Looking ahead, we may not be able to achieve sustainable development simply by continuing to do what we have been doing in the past 30-40 years," he said. JTC Corp., which develops and manages industrial estates, has agreed to recommendations to set up a pilot "eco-recyclying park" to recycle plastic, paper, glass and wood waste, he said. Lim said he hopes that recycling companies with advanced technologies can set up shop on the 19-hectare (47-acre) zone on the outskirts of the island.

Dealing with Singapore's Trash Problem

In 2008, Gillian Murdoch of Reuters wrote: “Creeping out of their condo after dark carrying illicit bags of garbage was not part of the life Sarah Moser and her husband envisioned for themselves before moving to tropical Singapore. But with recycling in its infancy on the island, such nocturnal escapades have become normal for the two academics. Each week they dodge watchful security guards, barking dogs and suspicious neighbors to carry rubbish they cannot recycle at home to recycling bins far down the road. "We end up storing tons of stuff," Sarah Moser said. "Paper and cardboard, plastics like milk, juice, takeaway containers." "Then we have to do a huge big binge trip, and we're so embarrassed because the guards are watching us." [Source: Gillian Murdoch, Reuters, May 21, 2008 ***]

“This small act of rebellion illustrates the problem faced, on a much larger scale, by tiny Singapore: there's nowhere to put the trash. "It is very costly to get rid of our waste," said Ong Chong Peng, general manger of the island's only remaining landfill, which cost S$610 million (US$447 million) to create on Pulau Semakau eight kilometers south of the mainland. The landfill "island," a 350-hectare feat of engineering reclaimed from the sea, opened the day after the last of five mainland landfills closed in 1999. Every day it takes shipments of over 2000 tonnes of ash — the charred remnants of 93 percent of Singapore's rubbish, burnt at its four incinerators. The National Environment Agency (NEA) predicts a new multimillion dollar incinerator will be needed every five to seven years, and a new landfill like Pulau Semakau every 25 to 30 years. ***

“Untroubled by the festering mounds of pungent tropical garbage that frequently pile up in its less-developed neighbors, clean, green and super-efficient Singapore's unique rubbish headache stems from its small size and high population density. Incinerators have met with public resistance in neighboring Malaysia and Indonesia, and have been banned in the Philippines because of perceived health risks. But the plants are sacred cows in Singapore, which opened its first in 1979, little commented on or questioned. "Singaporeans understand and accept that because land is scarce, incineration is one of the most cost effective ways of waste disposal, as it can reduce the volume of waste by up to 90 percent," the NEA said in a statement. ***

“Other proponents stress that the four waste-to-energy plants scattered in the south, centre and north, recover enough heat from the combustion process to generate power equal to lighting up the city three times over. "Some people think that incineration is just merely a destruction method, but it's not true," said Poh Soon Hoong, General Manager of the S$900 million ($659 million) Tuas South Incineration Plant, Singapore's largest, which burns up to 3000 tonnes of trash a day. "We actually generate power. The plants produce two to three percent of the total power generated in Singapore." ***

“For critics, however, Singapore's set-up is a dirty mess. "Waste incineration sounds like a pretty good idea if you don't really look into it too deeply," said Neil Tangri, of the international Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance (GAIA). "It's power, it gets rid of this problem we have... but it creates dioxins where none existed before. Dioxin is known to increase rates of cancer growth... An incinerator is a major contributor to a whole range of major health problems," he said. ***

“For Greenpeace Southeast Asia Director Von Hernandez, the plants fly in the face of the green goal of resource conservation. "Incineration does not really make the waste disappear, it transforms the problem into a formidable pollution problem," said Hernandez, who led the world's first successful campaign to ban the technology in his native Philippines. "If you look at this model, from harvesting resources to selling them, disposing of them, it's a linear model. In fact we should be looking at circular models to bring back some of this stuff to nature, and conserve materials." "In a small country like Singapore, inevitably, their landfill space will run out and they will have to find other ways of dealing with the problem," he said. ***

Efforts to Get Singapore to Recycle More

Gillian Murdoch of Reuters wrote: “With nowhere to site another landfill, recycling, though not yet rolled out to the masses in condominiums or state Housing Development Board (HDB) skyscrapers, is no longer just nice to have, but a necessity, said Ong. "Singaporeans have to practice the three Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) to extend the lifespan of Semakau as long as possible," he said, "and also reduce the need to build new incineration plants." [Source: Gillian Murdoch, Reuters, May 21, 2008 ***]

“With Semakau landfill expected to be full by 2040, even those who have worked for decades in Singapore's incineration industry agree the old burn-and-bury approach is unsustainable. "We cannot keep building incinerator plants," said Poh. "It's not really the solution." Like the NEA, he says Singaporeans must change their mindset. "We need to get people aware of the environmental impact of their actions." ***

“Convincing people to buy less in a country whose "national pastime" is shopping is a hard win, he said. Instead, a wave of softly-softly initiatives are being deployed to enthuse, inspire, or slyly enforce compliance. Recreational Sentosa Island pushes edu-tainment, with a troupe of trained macaque monkeys who perform daily recycling displays. At supermarkets, shoppers are now asked to bring their own bags to reduce the likelihood of the thousands of plastic bags handed out each day ending up in incinerators. ***

“Another stealthy project, which began in March, targets the cornerstone institution of Singapore life — the hawker centre. Darting between tables to snatch up dirty plates at Chinatown's Smith Street food court, the army of plate clearers are at another new frontline in the battle — food waste recycling. Leftovers scraped into black sacks on the end of the cleaners' trolleys are trucked to a start-up food waste recycling plant that hopes to save 800 tonnes of organic scraps a day from being sent to the incinerators. ***

“Local company IUT Global feeds the scraps into a bacteria-filled digester which turns them into biogas energy and compost. The plant's capacity will make it Southeast Asia's biggest bio-methanisation and renewable energy plant when fully operational, said Assistant Manager Leon Khew. In the meantime, normalizing the idea of recycling through legislation would help, he said. "Right now in Singapore recycling is not legislated. In Europe, everyone separates organics, everyone recycles, it's legislated." ***

Worries About Impact of Malaysia’s Forest City on Singapore

Located just across the Johor Strait from Singapore, Forest City was envisioned as a futuristic $42 billion “eco-city” on four man-made islands in southern Malaysia. Developed by Country Garden in partnership with a company linked to Johor’s Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar, the massive project aimed to attract wealthy Chinese buyers seeking luxury homes near Singapore at far lower prices. Plans called for 700,000 residential units, waterfront villas, shopping malls, schools, hotels, medical centers, and even its own immigration facilities. Supporters promoted Forest City as a high-tech, environmentally friendly urban center that would create tens of thousands of jobs and strengthen economic ties between Malaysia and Singapore. [Source: AFP, July 31, 2016]

The project initially generated strong investor enthusiasm because of its strategic location and comparatively affordable prices. A luxury seaside villa in Forest City cost a fraction of a comparable condominium in Singapore, making it attractive to overseas investors. Developers claimed that hundreds of units had already been sold during pre-launch phases, many to Chinese buyers paying cash. However, concerns soon emerged about the long-term viability of the project. Analysts warned that Forest City depended heavily on Chinese investment at a time when China’s economy was slowing and authorities were tightening controls on capital leaving the country. Credit agencies also questioned whether the project’s ambitious sales targets could realistically be achieved given the enormous scale of the development.

Forest City also sparked environmental controversy on both sides of the border. Conservationists and fishermen warned that the large-scale land reclamation — involving millions of cubic meters of sand — could damage marine ecosystems, alter tidal patterns, and threaten seagrass meadows and mangroves in Johor waters. Malaysian fishermen complained of declining catches, while Singapore’s environmental authorities closely monitored the possible cross-border impact on surrounding waterways. Environmental studies commissioned by the developers acknowledged that some traditional fishing grounds and natural habitats would be permanently lost, though the company argued that mitigation measures and economic benefits would outweigh the environmental costs. Despite criticism and uncertainty surrounding China’s property market, the developers continued to express confidence that Forest City would eventually become a major international urban and investment hub near Singapore.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; National Geographic, Live Science, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Singapore Tourism Board, The Guardian, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Encyclopedia.com, The Conversation, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026