RELIGION IN SINGAPORE: DIVERSITY, ETHNICITY, LAWS

RELIGION IN SINGAPORE

Religion in Singapore (percent of resident population) from 1980 to 2010

Singapore is multireligious as well as multiethnic. Religions: Buddhist 31.1 percent, Christian 18.9 percent, Muslim 15.6 percent, Taoist 8.8 percent, Hindu 5 percent, other 0.6 percent, none 20 percent (2020 estimate). According to the 2000 census: Buddhist 42.5 percent, Muslim 14.9 percent, Taoist 8.5 percent, Hindu 4 percent, Catholic 4.8 percent, other Christian 9.8 percent, other 0.7 percent, none 14.8 percent . Singapore is surrounded by Muslim countries: Malaysia and Indonesia. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

According to the 2000 census, 2.9 million Singaporeans professed adherence to a religious faith. Of these, Buddhists and Daoists made up 51.0 percent of the total, or 64.4 percent of the Chinese population and 13.9 percent of the “other” ethnic composition. Islam had the second largest following at 14.9 percent, or 99.6 percent of the Malay population. Christians represented 14.6 percent of religious believers and 53.3 percent of the “other” ethnic category. Hindus made up 4.0 percent of believers, or about 55.5 percent of the Indian population. Other religions made up only 0.4 percent of the total, and 14.8 percent professed no religious affiliation. [Source: Library of Congress, 2006]

Major religious preferences reported in 1988 were Buddhism (28 percent), Christian (19 percent), no religion (17 percent), Islam (16 percent), Daoist (13 percent), and Hindu (5 percent). Singapore's nineteenth-century immigrants valued the social as well as religious aspects of their congregations, and their descendants are more likely to concern themselves with social activities centered around their temples and mosques than with elaborate ritual or ceremony. The government, although secular, views religion as a positive force for instilling moral values in the society. At the same time, it keeps a watchful eye out for social or political activism within religious groups. Muslim fundamentalists and over-zealous Christian proselytizers alike are kept under careful scrutiny, lest they upset the religious and ethnic harmony of the country. [Source: Library of Congress, 1989]

There are two active, historic synagogues in Singapore that serve the Jewish community there: Maghain Aboth Synagogue (founded in 1878) and Chesed-El Synagogue (founded in 1905). Both are Orthodox synagogues and have been gazetted as national monuments, offering regular services for the roughly 300 to 2,500 Jewish residents. Maghain Aboth Synagogue (Waterloo Street) has been called the oldest synagogue in Southeast Asia. It hosts daily services. Chesed-El Synagogue (Oxley Rise) was built by Sir Manasseh Meyer and holds services on Mondays and during High Holidays. Additionally, a Progressive Ashkenazi congregation known as the United Hebrew Congregation of Singapore holds services, though they do not have a dedicated building. In the the early 2000s it was reported that one Sephardic synagogue conducted "Baghdad-tradition" services, which were not easily understood by most American Jews. [Sources: Google AI, Singaporejews, Reform Judaism.org, Cities of the World, Gale Group Inc., 2002, adapted from a U.S. Department of State report]

It is the custom for those visiting mosques and temples to remove their shoes before entering. Modest dress is appreciated or expected at all religious places.

Characteristics of Religion in Singapore

Sri Lankaramya Buddhist Temple, Singapore

Singapore is considered multi-religious as all the major religions — Islam (mainly by Malays), Hinduism (mainly by Indians), Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religion (mainly by Chinese), along with a substantial number of Christians of various denominations — are all practiced there. Religious practitioners range from formally installed priests and teachers representing the institutionalized religions to self-ordained shamans, healers, and sorcerers. Significant numbers of Chinese and Indian temples, Malay mosques, and Christian churches provide places to worship. Much religious activity takes place at home. There are different "street festivals" according to the ritual calendars of the different ethnic groups. [Source: Benedicte Brøgger, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001]

Many Singaporean Chinese like Chinese elsewhere combine traditional Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian beliefs. Spiritual beliefs and superstitions still abound in Singapore. The Chinese worship both Buddhist and Taoist deities as well as their ancestors spirits in hope of pacifying everyone and thus ensuring good fortune. Ancient rites and customs thrive in numerous 350 temples. There are significant numbers of Sikhs and Parsis. Many Christians are Catholics. Moonies and Jehovah's Witnesses have been officially banned by the government.

Singapore's immigrants commonly made their religious congregations a form of social organization. From the foundation of the city, colonial authorities had avoided interfering with the religious affairs of the ethnic communities, fostering an atmosphere of religious tolerance. It was characteristic of colonial Singapore that South Bridge Street, a major thoroughfare in the old Chinatown, should also be the site of the Sri Mariamman Temple, a south Indian Hindu temple, and of the Jamae or Masjid Chulia Mosque, which served Chulia Muslims from India's Coromandel Coast. The major religions were Chinese popular religion, commonly although inaccurately referred to as Daoism or Buddhism; Hinduism; Islam; Buddhism; and Christianity. Other religions included smaller communities of Sikhs and of Jains from India; Parsis, Indians of Iranian descent who followed the ancient Iranian Zoroastrian religion; and Jews, originally from the Middle East, who supported two synagogues. [Source: Library of Congress, 1989 *]

Seven of the ten major national holidays are religious festivals; two of them were Chinese, two Muslim, two Christian, and one Hindu. The festivals are the Chinese New Year; Vesak Day; Hari Raya Haji, the Muslim pilgrimage festival; Hari Raya Pusa, which marked the end of the fasting month of Ramadan and was a time of renewal; Christmas; Good Friday; and Deepavali. Citizens are encouraged to learn about the festivals of other religious and ethnic groups and to invite members of other groups to their own celebrations and feasts. Public ceremonies such as National Day or the commissioning of military officers have been marked by joint religious services conducted by the Inter-Religious Organization, an ecumenical body founded in 1949 to promote understanding and goodwill among the followers of different religions. *

Religion and Ethnicity in Singapore

Church of St Teresa, Singapore

Religion is closely linked to ethnicity in Singapore, where the ethnic Chinese community has the widest range of religious practices. Due to the historical blending of Buddhism and Taoism in Singapore, the two are sometimes difficult to distinguish as separate religions. Both Taoism and Chinese Buddhism are strongly influenced by Confucian teachings, and one could argue that Confucianism is Singapore's unofficial state religion. Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong and other Singaporean political leaders have presented themselves as Confucian junzi — men of learning, talent and virtue — and Singapore's political landscape has therefore largely been informed by Confucian values. Among the country's other ethnic groups, religion is almost inextricably linked to ethnicity. Most ethnic Malays (13.9 per cent of the population) are Muslim, while the majority of Indians (7.9 per cent of the population) practise Hinduism, though there are also significant numbers who practise Islam and a smaller number of Sikhs. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

In the 1980s, members of all ethnic groups lived and worked together, dressed similarly, and shared equal access to all public institutions and services. Religion, therefore, provided one of the major markers of ethnic boundaries. Malays, for instance, would not eat at Chinese restaurants or food stalls for fear of contamination by pork, and a Chinese, in this case, could not invite a Malay colleague to a festive banquet. Funerals of a traditional and ethnically distinctive style were usually held even by families that were not otherwise very religiously observant. The Community Associations and the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board encouraged the public celebration of such ethnically distinctive and appropriately colorful and noncontroversial festivals as the Chinese lantern festival and the dragon boat races. [Source: Library of Congress *]

The marriages, divorces, and inheritances of members of religious communities and the management of properties and endowments dedicated to religious purposes were of concern to the government, which interacted with some religious bodies through advisory boards dating back to the colonial period. The Hindu Advisory Board, established in 1917, advised the government on Hindu religion and customs and on any matters concerning the general welfare of the Hindu community. It assisted the Hindu Endowments Board, which administered the four major Hindu temples and their property, in organizing the annual festivals at the temples. The Sikh Advisory Board acted in the same way for the Sikhs. *

In the 1980s, the government regarded religion in general as a positive social force that could serve as a bulwark against the perceived threat of Westernization and the associated trends of excessive individualism and lack of discipline. It made religious education a compulsory subject in all secondary schools in the 1980s. The government, although secular, was concerned, however, with the social consequences of religiously motivated social action and therefore monitored and sometimes prohibited the activities of religious groups. The authorities feared that religion could sometimes lead to social and implicitly political action or to contention between ethnic groups. Islamic fundamentalism, for example, was a very sensitive topic that was seldom publicly discussed. Throughout the 1980s, the authorities were reported to have made unpublicized arrests and expulsions of Islamic activists.

Religious Change in Singapore

Between 1980 and 2000, the proportion of the population identifying as Christian increased from 10.1 percent to 14.6 percent, while the proportion identifying as Buddhist increased from 27 percent to 42.5 percent (at the expense of Taoism, which fell from 30 percent to 8.5 percent). The proportion of Muslims and Hindus remained more or less the same, at 15 per cent and four per cent respectively. In recent years more people identify as having no religion. Among Chinese, 23 per cent of 15- to 24-year-olds said they did not believe in any religion in 2001. As of 2020, 31.1 percent were Buddhist; 18.9 percent were Christian; 15.6 percent were Muslim; 8.8 percent were Taoist; 5 percent were Hindu; 0.6 percent were other; and 20 percent were none. [Source: CIA World Factbook; Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, May 20, 2001]

Hindu temple in Singapore

In 2008, the Earth Times reported: 'Census figures have revealed that the proportion of the population identifying as Taoist has plummeted from 30 percent in 1980 to 22.4 percent in 1990 and then to 8.5 percent in 2000. Buddhism is holding strong. More than 80 per cent of those born Buddhist remain Buddhist, according to the newspaper's survey. It is also the fastest-growing religion. It is the top choice among people searching for spirituality, gaining converts among those seeking a break from stressful lives. Three-quarters of those who abandoned Taoism said they felt disconnected from the religion or perceived a 'lack of meaning' in following it, according to the report. [Source: Earth Times, August 9, 2008]

Modernization and improved education levels brought changes in religious practice. The inflexible work schedules of industrialism, which tended to restrict communal ritual to evenings and Sundays, and the lack of opportunity or inclination to devote years to mastering ceremonial and esoteric knowledge, both contributed to a general tendency toward ritual simplification and abbreviation. At the same time, prosperous citizens contributed large sums to building funds, and in the 1980s a wave of rebuilding and refurbishing renewed the city's mosques, churches, Chinese temples, Buddhist monasteries, and Hindu temples. Ethnic affiliation was demonstrated by public participation in such annual rituals as processions, which did not require elaborate training or study. [Source: Library of Congress *]

Immigrants tended to drop or modify religious and ritual practices characteristic of and peculiar to the villages they had come from. Hindu temples founded in the nineteenth century to serve migrants of specific castes and to house deities worshipped only in small regions of southeastern India became the temples patronized by all Hindu residents of nearby apartment complexes. They offered a generic South Indian Hinduism focused on major deities and festivals. Many Chinese became more self-consciously Buddhist or joined syncretic cults that promoted ethics and were far removed from the exorcism and sacrificial rituals of the villages of Fujian and Guangdong. The movement away from village practices was most clearly seen and most articulated among the Malays, where Islamic reformers acted to replace the customary practices (adat) of the various Malay-speaking societies of Java, Sumatra, and Malaya with the precepts of classical Islamic law — sharia. *

In 1988 the Ministry of Community Development reported the religious distribution to be 28.3 percent Buddhist, 18.7 percent Christian, 17.6 percent no religion, 16 percent Islam, 13.4 percent Daoist, 9 percent Hindu, and 1.1 percent other religions (Sikhs, Parsis, Jews). The Christian proportion of the population nearly doubled between 1980 and 1988, growing from 10 percent to nearly 19 percent. The growth of Christianity and of those professing no religion was greatest in the Chinese community, with most of the Christian converts being young, well-educated people in secure white-collar and professional jobs. Most converts joined evangelical and charismatic Protestant churches worshiping in English. About one-third of the members of Parliament were Christians, as were many cabinet ministers and members of the ruling party, which was dominated by well-educated, Englishspeaking Chinese. The association of Christianity with elite social and political status may have helped attract some converts. *

By the late 1980s, some Buddhist organizations were winning converts by following the Protestant churches in offering services, hymnbooks, and counseling in English and Mandarin. A Buddhist Society at the National University of Singapore offered lectures and social activities similar to those of the popular Christian Fellowship. Some Chinese secondary students chose Buddhism as their compulsory religious studies subject, regarding Confucianism as too distant and abstract and Bible study as too Western and too difficult. They then were likely to join Buddhist organizations, which offered congenial groups, use of English, and a link with Asian cultural traditions. In the late 1980s, other Chinese whitecollar and skilled workers were joining the Japan-based Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society, an organization based on Nichiren Buddhism), which provided a simple, direct style of worship featuring chanting of a few texts and formulas and a wide range of social activities. The more successful religious groups, Christian and Buddhist, offered directly accessible religious practice with no elaborate ritual or difficult doctrine and a supportive social group. *

Religious Laws and Rules in Singapore

Singapore has maintained a strong tradition of religious tolerance while enforcing strict limits on political involvement by religious groups. There is freedom of religion in Singapore with some exceptions. Freedom of religion is guaranteed in Article 15 of Singapore's constitution. Under the 1990 Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, the Singaporean government is empowered to prevent leaders and members of religious groups from participating in politics, creating "ill-will" between religious groups or engaging in subversive activities. Given these prohibitions, it is hardly surprising that religion has no direct impact on the country's political life. Few politicians in Singapore are Buddhist, and a disproportionate number of those in high-level government positions are Christian. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

The Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act allows authorities to stop religious leaders from addressing or advising groups, to prevent them from inciting hostility between different religions and disaffection against the government, among other offenses. Singapore also uses the Sedition Act to clamp down on anyone inciting communal tensions. Two ethnic Chinese men were jailed in 2005 for anti-Muslim blogs. Under the Sedition Act, offenders may be liable to imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of several thousand dollars or both. The Singapore government has acted against organizations it viewed as potentially disruptive to national unity or social order. The Jehovah's Witnesses were banned in 1972 because members refused to participate in compulsory military service, while the Unification Church was prohibited in 1982 amid concerns about its aggressive proselytizing and possible impact on social stability. [Source: Bloomberg, William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006; Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, May 20, 2001]

The Singaporean government has made it clear that religion and politics must remain separate, citing the potential for social unrest in a region characterised by enormous religious diversity. Unlike in the United States, where churches and religious organizations sometimes take active political positions, religious groups in Singapore generally avoid criticizing the government or engaging in partisan politics. Mathew Mathews, a research fellow at the Institute of Policy Studies, said Singapore’s laws provide “a broad framework” intended to keep religious leaders from participating in contemporary political debates.

Chapter XV of the Singapore Penal Code (Cap 224) contains offenses relating to religion and race. Under this chapter, section 295 provides that injuring or defiling a place of worship withintent to insult the religion of any class is punishable by up to five years of imprisonment, a fine, or both. Section 296 provides that disturbing a religious assembly is punishable by up to three years of imprisonment, a fine, or both. Section 297 provides that trespassing on burial places, etc. to wound the feeling of others or insult the religion of others is punishable by up to three years of imprisonment, a fine, or both. [Source: Library of Congress Law Library, Legal Reports , 2017|*|]

According to section 298, uttering words, etc., with deliberate intent to wound the religious or racial feelings of any person is punishable by up to three years of imprisonment, a fine, or both. Section 298 provides, “Whoever, with deliberate intention of wounding the religious or racial feelings of any person, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of that person, or makes any gesture in the sight of that person, or places any object in the sight of that person, or causes any matter however represented to be seen or heard by that person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 3 years, or with fine, or with both. |*|

Religious Harmony Act in Singapore

The Singaporeangovernment introduced the Religious Harmony Act in 1990 following concerns over increasingly aggressive preaching and religious tensions. The law was designed to address two main issues: preventing religion from entering politics and discouraging religious groups from criticizing other faiths. According to then-Home Affairs Minister Wong Kan Seng, authorities warned religious leaders on several occasions that the Act could be used against them if their activities continued. [Source: Bloomberg, William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006; Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, May 20, 2001]

Examples cited by the government included a religious leader who, before the 1991 general election, encouraged Muslims to support Muslim candidates with strong religious convictions. In 1992, a pastor was warned after criticizing Buddhism, Taoism, and Catholicism in church publications and sermons. Another religious leader was admonished in 1995 after criticizing a Hindu belief involving milk offerings to statues of Ganesha. Wong stated that comments attacking other religions could provoke tension among followers of those faiths.

Under the Religious Harmony Act, restraining orders could prohibit religious leaders from addressing congregations, holding office within their organizations, or participating in religious publications. Violations could result in fines of up to S$10,000, imprisonment of up to five years, or both. Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong defended the policy, warning that religious conflict had destabilized other countries and stating that Singapore would not allow its “delicate racial and religious balance” to be threatened.

The Religious Harmony Act also granted the government broad powers, including limiting judicial review of its actions. During parliamentary debate on the legislation, some lawmakers expressed concern about the scope of these powers. Former backbencher Aline Wong said there was anxiety among some Catholic and Protestant groups that the law could potentially be used to suppress political dissent rooted in moral or religious beliefs.

Religious Laws and Military Issues in Singapore

Andrew Loh wrote in Singapore Scene, The Singapore government “has tried. And to foster closer understanding among the various races and religions here, it introduced the inter-racial and religious confidence circles, or "inter-racial confidence circles" (IRCC) in 2002, after the 9/11 attacks on the United States the preceding year. However, its policies have also been criticised for exacerbating the racial divide, creating distrust and disenchantment among some in the minority race communities. Its racial quota in public housing, for example, its ethnic self-help groups, and the practice of requiring a minority-race candidate in each Group Representation Constituency (GRC) for elections. [Source: Andrew Loh, Singapore Scene, November 21, 2011]

The lack of minority-race — Malays, especially — representation in the higher echelons and combat units of our armed forces is an issue which some have raised in the past as well. In 1987, Lee Hsien Loong (then Second Minister for Defence) explained the absence thus: "If there is a conflict, if the SAF is called to defend the homeland, we do not want to put any of our soldiers in a difficult position where his emotions for the nation may be in conflict with his religion."

In 1999, Lee Kuan Yew said, "If, for instance, you put in a Malay officer who's very religious and who has family ties in Malaysia in charge of a machine gun unit, that's a very tricky business. We've got to know his background... I'm saying these things because they are real, and if I don't think that, and I think even if today the Prime Minister doesn't think carefully about this, I and my family could have a tragedy."

Arrest of Catholics and Ban on Jehovah’s Witnesses

In 1987, according the Star, the Singapore government detained 22 people, including several lay Catholic church workers, for their part in an alleged Marxist plot to overthrow the government. They were accused of using the church as a cover to advance communism. Singapore's Muslim minority, however, remain extremely sensitive about attempts to convert them. Many see the Act as a protective cover against aggressive evangelism. [Source: Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, May 20, 2001]

The Jehovah's Witnesses, the Unification Church (Moonies) and the Christian Conference of Asia are banned in Singapore. Jehovah's Witnesses were banned in 1972, partly because male members refused to perform compulsory military duty. The Unification Church as banned in 1982 because "the group brainwashed families and broke them up, and members gave up their possessions to the church."

There are an estimated 2,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Singapore. In late 1995 and early 1996, 63 Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested during Bible study meetings at private homes. All 63 were found guilty of attending a meeting of an unlawful society. Seven paid fines ranging from $700 to $2,800 and 46 others chose jail to protest what they called religious persecution. [Source: Reuters]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; National Geographic, Live Science, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Singapore Tourism Board, The Guardian, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Encyclopedia.com, The Conversation, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026