SINGAPORE AND CLIMATE CHANGE: EFFORTS TO CUT EMISSIONS, RISING SEA LEVELS

SINGAPORE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change poses significant challenges for Singapore, particularly because of its low-lying geography, dense urban development, and tropical climate. Heavier rainfall linked to changing weather patterns has contributed to flash floods in parts of the city, including the prominent Orchard Road shopping district. Rising temperatures are also a major concern. Government projections indicate that Singapore’s average daily temperature could increase substantially by the end of the century, leading to greater demand for air conditioning and higher overall energy consumption in homes, offices, shopping malls, and industrial facilities. [Source: David Fogarty, Reuters, January 26, 2012 -]

Singapore already ranks among the most energy-intensive economies in Asia due to its industrial base and widespread use of air conditioning in commercial buildings. To address this, the government has promoted energy-efficiency measures such as stricter building standards, appliance labeling programs, and improvements in public transportation. Singapore has also shifted much of its electricity generation from fuel oil to natural gas, which produces lower carbon emissions. Investments have been made in mass transit systems, clean technology research, and sustainability initiatives. However, electricity demand has continued to rise alongside economic growth and urban development, while the country’s limited land area restricts the large-scale use of renewable energy sources such as solar power.

Singapore’s greenhouse gas emissions have increased over the decades, reflecting continued industrial activity and its role as a major global shipping and energy hub. Policymakers have explored measures such as carbon pricing and emissions trading systems to encourage reductions in emissions. The country’s status as one of the world’s largest bunkering ports — supplying fuel to international ships — also places it at the center of discussions about regulating emissions from global shipping. Singapore’s government has argued that while it supports international efforts to combat climate change, unilateral action by a small country would have limited impact unless supported by broader global cooperation and comparable measures adopted by other nations.

Climate Change Data for Singapore

Carbon dioxide emissions: 238.962 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from coal and metallurgical coke: 2.338 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from petroleum and other liquids: 210.859 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from consumed natural gas: 25.765 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]

In 1992, Singapore was one of 50 countries with some of the world's highest levels of industrial carbon dioxide emissions, totalling 49.8 million metric tons — equivalent to 17.99 metric tons per capita. By 2000, this figure had risen to 59 million metric tons.[Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Seah Chiang Nee wrote in The Star in 2007, With 0.1 percent of the world’s population, Singapore accounts for 0.2 percent of carbon dioxide emissions, or an average of 12.3 tonnes per person, according to the Human Development Index. (If all countries in the world were to emit CO2 at levels similar to Singapore’s, it would exceed the world’s sustainable carbon budget by approximately 453 percent, a report said). [Source: Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, December 1, 2007]

“The per-capita carbon dioxide emissions from Singapore are about are half the levels in the U.S. Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy: 172.2 million Mt (2010 est.), country comparison to the world: 31. In the 1990s, Singapore had the highest carbon dioxide emission per capita (metric tons per year): 1) Singapore (21.6); 2) the United States (20.0); 3) Australia (16.7); 4) Norway (15.3).

Rising Sea Levels Presents Challenges to Singapore

As a densely populated, low-lying island state, Singapore is "extremely vulnerable" to sea level rise and coastal erosion. Most of Singapore’s business and industrial infrastructure — its airport, its business and financial districts and, of course, its busy container ports — lie less than 2 meters above sea level. David Fogarty of Reuters wrote: “A 15-km (10 mile) stretch of crisp white beach is one of the key battlegrounds in Singapore's campaign to defend its hard-won territory against rising sea levels linked to climate change. Stone breakwaters are being enlarged on the low-lying island state's man-made east coast and their heights raised. Barges carrying imported sand top up the beach, which is regularly breached by high tides. The new land is now the frontline in a long-term battle against the sea. [Source: David Fogarty, Reuters, January 26, 2012 -]

“Singapore is also among the most vulnerable to climate change that is heating up the planet, changing weather patterns and causing seas to rise as the oceans warm and glaciers and icecaps melt. Late last year, the government decided the height of all new reclamations must be 2.25 meters (7.5 feet) above the highest recorded tide level — a rise of a meter over the previous mandated minimum height.The additional buffer was costly but necessary,Environment Minister Vivian Balakrishnan told Reuters. "You are buying insurance for the future," he said during a visit to a large flood control barrier that separates the sea from a reservoir in the central business area. The decision underscores the government's renowned long-term planning and the dilemma the country faces in fighting climate change while still trying to grow. It also highlights the problem facing other low-lying island states and coastal cities and the need to prepare. -

“The U.N. climate panel says sea levels could rise between 18 and 59 centimeters (7 to 24 inches) this century and more if parts of Antarctica and Greenland melt faster. Some scientists say the rise is more likely to be in a range of 1 to 2 meters. Singapore could cope with a rise of 50 cm to 1 m, coastal scientist Teh Tiong Sa told Reuters. "But a rise of two meters would turn Singapore into an island fortress," said Teh, a retired teacher from Singapore's National Institute for Education. That would mean constructing more and higher walls to protect against the sea. -

“Indeed, between 70 and 80 percent of Singapore already has some form of coastal protection, the government says. Topping up reclamation levels "does not fundamentally change the way we approach reclamation — while we reclaim to meet our development needs, we are cognisant that there is a physical limit to how much more land we can reclaim," a spokesman for the National Climate Change Secretariat told Reuters. To make more efficient use of existing land, a government agency floated the idea this month of building a science city 30 stories underground. -

“Against rising sea levels, it is a campaign in progress to tame the tides. In some cases, it might be better to let the sea reclaim the land in a managed retreat, said Teh, the coastal scientist. "It's like robbing Peter to pay Paul. Some areas you keep, others you let go." For land-limited Singapore, that could prove a tough decision to make.” -

Singapore Says the WWF’s High Carbon Emission Ranking Unfair

Saira Syed of the BBC wrote: “A 2012 World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) report says Singapore has the biggest per person carbon footprint in the Asia Pacific region. "If everyone in the world enjoyed the same level of consumption as the average Singaporean, we would need close to 3.5 planets to meet the demands placed on our resources," according to the WWF. It's a view that doesn't sit well with the government because the report attributes emissions to the country where carbon is consumed, instead of where it is produced. [Source: Saira Syed, BBC, June 18, 2012 \^/]

“The WWF explains that if a car is made in Japan but exported to Singapore, its carbon emissions are counted under Singapore not Japan. However, Environment Minister Vivian Balakrishnan tells the BBC that the measure is unfair because Singapore is a resource-poor nation that must import almost everything the population needs. "If you look at our utilisation of resources, the way we generate electricity and way we organise our transportation system, we're not perfect yet but we've actually done more than our fair share," he says. \^/

“Some 80 percent of Singapore's power generation comes from natural gas, the cleanest of the fossil fuels, according to the Energy Market Authority. It says some of its oil refineries and petrochemical companies, which account for 50 percent of all carbon emissions and are a major industry driving the economy, have also made the switch to natural gas. "Singapore's total emissions at a global level only accounts for 0.2 percent of total global greenhouse gas emissions, a very small almost insignificant number," Mr Balakrishnan says. The International Energy Association's latest publication, which also measures by production, puts Singapore behind countries such as Brunei, Korea and Taiwan in terms of per person emissions. \^/

Singapore’s Efforts to Reduce Carbon Emissions

ingapore's annual CO2 emissions per capita from 1950 to 2022 compared to 8 other ASEAN countries

Saira Syed of the BBC wrote: “Singapore is committed to reducing its carbon emissions. Authorities are promising a 7-11 percent cut by 2020. The goals seem particularly ambitious given that Singapore says a total abandonment of fossil fuels is very difficult for the country because it is "alternative energy disadvantaged" Hydroelectric, geothermal, wind, tidal and even solar are not viable renewable energy sources for Singapore, according to Melissa Low from the Energy Studies Institute, a government-linked think tank. "Because of our geographical region and size, we are unable to adopt these types of renewables on a large scale," she says. [Source: Saira Syed, BBC, June 18, 2012 \^/]

“Ironically, Singapore's government has helped develop a burgeoning clean technology sector, but given that many of these innovations cannot be used within the country, it is rendered an almost purely commercial venture. "Singapore is a test bed and the companies use their performance in Singapore as their calling card overseas," says Mr Balakrishnan. "It is desirable for companies to look at sustainable development and the green economy as a business opportunity." \^/

"When we talk about climate change in the case of Singapore, this is not just a negotiating or debating point," says Mr Balakrishnan. "This is a reality." He says the government is taking steps to mitigate risks, mandating that all reclaimed land, which much of the central business district is built on, must be 2.25m above the highest recorded tide level. Drainage systems are also being reviewed to deal with changing weather patterns that could cause flooding.\^/

“Alongside those measures is the government's recent initiative to get Singaporeans to change habits and cut consumption. In June 2012, the National Climate Change Secretariat released a national climate change action plan that stresses that individuals need to do their part through lifestyle changes such as using fans instead of air conditioners. That, though, has been met with some cynicism, with one micro blogger, Johnny Wong, commenting on Twitter: "Yeah switch off aircon in parliament." \^/

Seah Chiang Nee wrote in The Star, “With Dutch help, the government plans to build a high seawall to protect it from the raging tides that may one day engulf much of what it has. It has drafted a plan to address climate change, including commissioning a two-year study on its possible impact on Singapore. The republic signed the Kyoto Protocol last year. Some S$350mil (RM812mil) has been set aside to develop alternative sources of energy like solar, wind and bio-fuels. [Source: Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, December 1, 2007]

Green Housing and Clean Energy in Singapore

ingapore's annual CO2 emissions from 1950 to 2022 compared to 8 other ASEAN countries

Seah Chiang Nee wrote in The Star, “The corridors of some homes in Singapore’s heartland will soon be powered by solar panels, and outside walls will be covered with cooling plants to reduce the need for air-conditioning. These pioneering features in the Housing and Development Board are part of Singapore’s reinforced environmental trend. Seven blocks of Singapore’s first eco-friendly apartments will be built in Punggol, due for completion in 2011, which will have a garbage chute for recyclable materials on every floor. Integrated washbasins will channel used water into the toilet cistern for the next flush. An “eco-deck” garden in the estate centre will act as a green lung, absorbing heat and providing shade. Officials say that will reduce the temperature by 4̊C. The total reduction of energy consumption in these areas is expected to be about 80 percent. Motion sensors in the carpark will provide lighting when required. The estate will have a rainwater collection system designed to provide more than half a million litres, or 130,000 gallons, of water a year for cleaning the corridors and common areas. The unit price could become 5 percent -10 percent higher. [Source: Seah Chiang Nee, The Star, December 1, 2007 ~]

“Eco-HDB is just one of several recent environment-friendly measures being adopted; others include: 1) Singapore’s first “zero-energy” building that produces as much energy as it consumes; now under planning; 2) An eco-friendly mall with urinals that use no water and sensors, which monitor carbon monoxide levels in the air; 3) A S$610mil (RM1.4bil) island (measuring 3.5 sq km) off southern Singapore built from rubbish from the country’s four incineration plants, and which was recently opened to the public. 4) A whole new street fronting Raffles Hotel at Beach Road (due to finish in 2012) will have a host of eco-features – sky gardens, sunken courtyards, slant-sided towers and a large environmental canopy. ~

“Some academicians say the city-state has done very well in controlling pollution and building a green environment, but does poorly in addressing major environmental concerns. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong said the country would do its utmost but has to protect its economic growth. The city-state is totally dependent on fossil fuels, with no feasible alternative, he said. “Every year we have 25 million containers shipped through Singapore, (and) ships taking bunker fuels in Singapore,” he noted. “These are not Singapore’s consumption, they are international but happen to upload in Singapore and we have to account for this fairly.”“ ~

Green Buildings and Air Conditioning in Singapore

Marissa Lee wrote in The Strait Times, “Going green is all well and good - helps the planet and all that - but Singaporeans do not like being denied their air-conditioning. Working in an eco-sound building can often seem more like an endurance test in a sweatbox with desks. But employees at the Standard Chartered (Stanchart), Citi and Xilinx offices at Changi Business Park have found that going green does not have to be an ergonomic compromise. For them, working in a well-designed green office means embracing the environment outside rather than being boxed in and away from it.It means more windows to maximise natural lighting and ventilation, which also means the end of jostling for once-rare window seats. [Source: Marissa Lee, The Strait Times, March, 29 2010 ^]

“Stanchart chief information officer Shee Tse Koon said: 'One of the key things that I enjoy about working in this building is that it has lots of windows and plenty of natural light.' Trees and shrubs deck a rooftop garden while greenery also infiltrates the offices and ground floor. 'The greenery and natural light provide a healthier working environment and give me a chance to relax, even if it's for a brief respite,' said Mr Shee. ^

“Next door at the DBS Asia Hub, staff who move in from May are expected to benefit from the better air quality achieved by using 'green' materials, such as carpets that emit less volatile organic chemicals. Carbon dioxide levels will be monitored in the office to regulate fresh air intake, while checks in the carpark will prevent harmful levels of carbon monoxide and exhaust gases from accumulating. 'Going green makes good business sense both financially and as part of a corporate's social responsibility,' said Mr Ho Twee Teng, managing director of technology and operations at DBS Bank. 'With better and cleaner surroundings, our organisation will benefit from healthier employees.' ^

“Indeed, more companies are starting to ride the green wave. Mr Tan Swee Yiow, chief executive of Singapore Commercial at Keppel Land, observes 'an increasing trend for multinational companies to include 'green' as one of the selection criteria when choosing office buildings'. Keppel Land has pledged to achieve a minimum Green Mark Gold certification or its equivalent for all its developments in Singapore and overseas, as a form of product differentiation. Keppel does not charge higher rental costs for companies that choose sustainable developments, Mr Tan said. ^

“Lend Lease, the developer behind 313@Somerset, is also pushing for a greener work environment. Last year, 313@Somerset was the first retail centre here to introduce the Green Lease. 'The Green Lease is a two-way collaboration with the tenants whereby the landlord helps them reach the centre's sustainability aspirations by providing consultancy, sustainability tools and access to sustainable vendors and materials,' said Mr Philip Yim, development manager of Lend Lease Retail. A retail calculator was provided to show tenants how different choices with regard to a shop's interior and display could translate into reduced electricity usage. More importantly, this information was translated directly into a figure of the tenant's energy savings, as well as the exact reduction in the business' carbon footprint. ^

“While there are some higher initial capital costs for tenants that have invested in things like energy-efficient lighting, the average payback period is a mere one to three years, and Mr Yim expects this period to shorten as utility prices continue to rise. 'Having benefited from all this, some of our tenants have asked for our assistance in their other retail outlets in other centres,' he added. ^

“But building a green workplace does not always mean higher costs. The concept of passive design was deployed in the DBS Asia Hub so that the building is no less than a simple yet eloquent response to a tropical climate. A double-glazed building facade and naturally ventilated staircases help lower the air-conditioning load and eliminate the need for mechanical fans. ^

“The National Institute of Education (NIE) campus has also been 'greened' at no additional cost, with the help of sunscreens, overhanging roofs and cavity walls that let in light but not heat and direct glare. But there is more to passive design than just metal and plaster. 'Our canteen is also known as the rainforest cafe,' said Mr Selvarajan Selvaratnam, head of the development and estate department at NIE. He explained how the NIE cultivated a small plot of tall trees at the building's western face to shade the canteen and the library above it from the evening sun. Besides creating a visually pleasing dining atmosphere, the foliage also doubles as a rain shield. And like any other cycle of nature, NIE's green cost savings are ploughed back to staff and students via landscaping projects. ^

“So far, NIE has funded the planting of more trees and the installation of a miniature water terrace, which has become a popular venue for wedding photos. Rewards even went straight to the stomach when some of Mr Selvarajan's colleagues from the Malay language department identified a certain rough green fruit growing from the new trees as breadfruit. They proceeded to slice, fry and serve them like potato chips to the other staff. 'So you have a form of multiracial bonding,' said Mr Selvarajan, 'because...most Indians and Chinese don't know about this fruit. ^'

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; National Geographic, Live Science, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Singapore Tourism Board, The Guardian, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Encyclopedia.com, The Conversation, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026