GEOGRAPHY OF SINGAPORE
Located on the southern tip of the Southeast Asia, about 100 kilometers (163 miles) north of the equator, Singapore is a New-York-City-size island and city-nation on the western side of the South China Sea. Ranked as the 192nd largest country in the world, it covers 744 square kilometers (287.4 square miles) .and is 50 kilometers (32 miles) from east to west and 23 kilometers (15 miles) wide at its widest point from north to south. [Source: CIA World Factbook, Wikipedia]
A focal point for Southeast Asian sea routes, Singapore An is an island nation with no land boundaries, It consists of about 60 islands, the largest of which by far is Pulau Ujong. Land reclamation has removed many former islands and created a number of new ones. Malaysia lies to the north across the Johore Strait and Indonesia to the south across the Strait of Malacca. Singapore claims a territorial sea area of three nautical miles (5.6 kilometers), as well as an exclusive fishing zone beyond the territorial sea as defined in treaties and practice.
Singapore is situated between Malaysia and Indonesia at the narrowest point of the Strait of Malacca, one of the world’s strategic sea routes connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. Lying off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, Singapore is connected to Malaysia by a causeway, built in 1920, which crosses the 1.6 kilometer (mile) -wide Johore Strait between Singapore and and Malaysia. A second causeway opened in 1999. Singapore is also only a few kilometers away from the Indonesia island of Sumatra. Between Singapore and Sumatra is the eastern end of the 890-kilometer-long Straits of Malacca, one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes. It is no surprise therefore that Singapore has been ranked as the world's busiest port.
With about 8,400 to 8,600 people per square kilometer (roughly 21,800 to 22,300 people per square mile), it is one of third most densely populated territory or country in the world along with Monaco, Macau and Hong Kong. Most of the urbanization is along the southern coast, with relatively dense population clusters found in the central areas. The center of the island has been preserved as a water catchment area to ease Singapore’s dependence on Malaysia for drinking water. Three water reservoirs and their reserve catchment area, which preserves a fragment of the original tropical forest, occupy the center of the island.
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Land Features of Singapore
Singapore is slightly more than 3.5 times the size of Washington, D.C.. Area: total: 744 square kilometers (287.4 square miles) (Wikipedia).
Singapore is the second smallest country in Asia after the Mladives and is often described as a city-state. The diamond-shaped main island accounts for all but about 40 square kilometers (16 square miles) of the republic's area. The main island has three major geographic divisions: an elevated, hilly area in the center; a section of lower, rolling land to the west; and flatlands to the east. Singapore's smaller islands are low-lying with coastal beaches. [Source: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography, Gale Group, Inc., 2003]
Coastline: 193 kilometers (120 miles). Elevation: highest point: Bukit Timah 166 meters (544 feet); lowest point: Singapore Strait 0 meters. Geographic coordinates: 1 22 N, 103 48 E. Land use: agricultural land: 0.9 percent (2023 estimate); arable land: 0.8 percent (2023 estimate); permanent crops: 0.1 percent (2023 estimate); permanent pasture: 0 percent (2022 estimate); forest: 22 percent (2023 estimate); other: 77.1 percent (2023 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]
Singapore Has Gotten Bigger, Mainly from Land Reclamation
Singapore has expanded its total land area by approximately 25 percent —growing from about 581 square kilometers in the 1960s to over 745 square kilometers. today. This dramatic enlargement was achieved through aggressive, long-term land reclamation strategies to support rapid industrialization, housing, and economic infrastructure.
Singapore covered about 648 square kilometers (250 square miles in the 1990s. The total coastline of Singapore in 2005 was 193 kilometers. The land area claimed by the government in 2004 was 699 square kilometers; the water area was 10 square kilometers, for a total national area of 709 square kilometers. According to the CIA World Factbook, Singapore's area is 719 square kilometers (277.6 square miles); land: 709.2 square kilometers (273.8 square miles); water: 10 square kilometers (3.86 square miles)
Between the 1980s and 2010s, the coastline has increased by 55 kilometers and the total land area has increased by some 63 square kilometers as a result of extensive land reclamation and landfill projects. So much reclamation has been done that roads that once ran along the coast are now more than a kilometer inland. Most of the urban, residential and industrial zones are around the perimeter of the island, particularly in the south. Much of this is on reclaimed land.
Physical Geography of Singapore
Singapore is comprised mostly of a low-lying, gently undulating central plateau. There are some rounded granite hills, especially in the island’s center. At 166 meters (581 feet) above sea level, the highest point is Bukit Timah Peak. The western and southwestern regions are composed of a series of northwest to southeast tending ridges, which are low but quite steep. To the east is a large region of generally flat alluvial soils where streams have cut steep-sided valleys and gullies. The island is drained by a large number of short streams, some of which flow into the sea through mangrove swamps, lagoons, or broad estuaries.
The Strait of Malacca is the shortest sea route between India and China. Singapore’s major natural resources are its location and its deep-water harbor. The city of Singapore occupies about a third of the island. Singapore's small size and large urban population is why it is one of most densely populated places in the world.
Aside from Bukit Timah Hill, the main island's highest point, Singapore's central hills include Mandai and Panjang. Lower ridges extend northwest-to-southeast in the western and southern parts of the island. Singapore has no significant caves or canyons.
Water Features of Singapore
Singapore is located between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. The coastal waters surrounding the country are generally less than 30 metres (100 feet) deep. The second next-largest island after Singapore Island ( Pulau Ujong (which translates to "island at the end") is Pulau Tekong Besar, located to the northeast, with an area of only 18 square kilometres (7 square miles). While the easternmost part of the coastline is smooth, the rest is indented; the most notable indentation is the deep natural harbour at the mouth of the Singapore River on the southern coast. [Source: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of Physical Geography, Gale Group, Inc., 2003]
Singapore's rivers are all short, including its main river, which shares its name with the island itself. The Singapore River flows into the wide harbour on the island's south-eastern coast. Other rivers include the 9-mile-long (14 km) Seletar, the longest river on the island, as well as the Jurong, Kalang, Kranji and Serangoon rivers.
The Singapore River is only 4.1 kilometers in length but historically was an important resource for early settlers and traders. The Singapore River has five tributaries: the Geylang, Kallang, Pelton, Rochor, and Whampoa rivers. Also there are other small streams, some of which flow directly into the sea through mangrove swamps, lagoons, or broad estuaries. Several of the large streams have been damned at their mouths to form freshwater reservoirs. Singapore has 10 major reservoirs, both coastal and inland. Some of the larger streams were dammed at their mouths to form fresh-water reservoirs, and the major stream courses through built-up areas were lined with concrete to promote rapid drainage.
Singapore has no significant natural lakes, but fourteen artificial bodies of water have been created by constructing reservoirs. Fourteen reservoirs have been built on Singapore's rivers for flood control, as well as for private and industrial water use. Almost all of these reservoirs are located in the centre of the island or at the mouths of rivers on the north-eastern or western coasts. The largest are Seretar and Upper Pierce, both of which are in the centre of the island.
Reclaimed Land in Singapore
Daniel Moss of Bloomberg wrote: Barges piled with sand traverse the sea lanes around Singapore, almost as ubiquitous as the semi trucks that ply America’s interstate highways. The republic is often thought of as a single small island jammed with skyscrapers and state-of-the-art highways. In fact, the country is composed of anywhere between roughly 40 and 70 islands — though few residents can put a precise figure on it. Land reclamation has merged some islands over the years for industrial use, while others appear to be little more than a cluster of rocks and shrubs. A handful are reserved for the military. [Source: Daniel Moss, Bloomberg, November 15, 2020]
Some of Singapore’s most iconic spots have sprung up in places that were once underwater: the Marina Bay Sands hotel and casino, Changi Airport and the Port of Singapore. The address of the storied Raffles Hotel isn’t One Beach Road for nothing; the shoreline, which at one point began at the end of its gravelly driveway, is now barely visible through blocks of towers and luxury condominiums.
The island of Singapore originally was covered with tropical rain forest and fringed with mangrove swamps. Since the founding of the city in 1819, the natural landscape has been altered by human hands. As the island urbanized, hills were leveled, swamps drained and land was reclaimed from the sea, a process that was accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s. By 1988, Singapore's land area was 49 percent built up. By 2005 forest covered only about 4,000 hectares, or 6.6 percent of the land area. The gently undulating central plateau contains a water catchment area and a nature preserve
Extensive land reclamation between 1965 and 1987 increased the size of Singapore Island from 586 square kilometers to 636 square kilometers; further reclamation has been done since then. Many of the fifty-odd small islets and reefs have been enlarged or joined to form new larger islands suitable for industrial uses. In 1989 three of Singapore's five oil refineries were on offshore islands, and other small islands were used for military gunnery or as bombing ranges. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the municipal authorities made great efforts to establish parks and gardens as land became available and to plant tens of thousands of ornamental trees and shrubs, thus completing the transformation of the natural landscape.
David Fogarty of Reuters wrote: “Singapore has already reclaimed large areas to expand its economy and population. Since it was created by the British as a trading port in the early 19th century, Singapore has turned to the sea to expand. Much of the city centre is on reclaimed land, including an expanding financial district, a new terminal for ocean liners and a $3.2 billion underground expressway, part of which runs under the sea. The industrial west has one of Asia's largest petrochemical complexes, much of it on reclaimed islands. The wealth generated from these sectors has created a $255 billion economy. [Source: David Fogarty, Reuters, January 26, 2012 -]
High-Rises to Get Even Higher in Land-Scarce Singapore
About 80 percent of the people in Singapore live in the high-rise apartment buildings. In 2001, Associated Press reported: “Now, its government is aiming even higher. The Urban Redevelopment Authority released a sweeping plan to preserve nature, open spaces and historic buildings by building upward instead of outward as the wealthy island's population grows — and that means sending the high-rises even higher. "Currently only 35,000 people live above the 20th story," said Caroline Seah, a physical planning executive for the authority. "In the future, more people can get to live on higher floors and enjoy great views." [Source: Associated Press, April 28, 2001 /+/]
“The plan also includes preserving old buildings, patches of jungle and mangrove swamps that were slated for destruction. And it calls for building down as well as up, digging into what the authority's chief executive officer, Tan Kim Siew, called "our big land bank." "The people are willing to tolerate higher density in exchange for more recreational and open space," Tan said. And higher-density housing "will also strengthen community bonds," she added. /+/
“Seah said the new plan calls for quadrupling the number of people living in the central financial and shopping district, which will help "add buzz to the city." Officials said the new plan would also preserve more of Singapore's unique architecture, which includes ornate 19th-century baroque shops built by wealthy Chinese settlers, and European-style mansions built when it was a British colony. /+/
Land-Scarce Singapore Looks Underground for Space
Heather Tan of Associated Press wrote: “Already one of the most densely populated countries in the world, tiny land scarce Singapore is projecting its population to swell by a third over the next two decades. To accommodate the influx, its planners envisage expanding upward, outward and downward. The population target of 6.9 million people, an increase of 1.3 million from the present, is contentious in a country where rapid immigration has already strained services such as public transport and contributed to surging home prices and a widening wealth gap. Adding a new dimension to their complaints is the idea that planners want underground living to leap off their drawing boards and become a solution to overcrowding. [Source: Heather Tan, Associated Press, February 22, 2013 ||||]
“State media is already championing the idea. In September, the Straits Times newspaper characterized underground living as the "next frontier" for Singapore. It said Singaporeans may one day "live, work and play below ground in vast, subterranean caverns that make today's underground malls look like home basements." The Building Construction Authority, which oversees a new agency responsible for surveying underground, said it could become reality by 2050. The public's reaction has included derision and disbelief. "Why pull me down," said Patricia Bian-Hing, a retired 87-year-old businesswoman. "The only time I will go underground peacefully to live will be in my coffin." ||||
“But experts are calling for an open mind about the possibility. "Singaporeans are dismissing this prospect because it is new, not because it is unworkable or implausible," said Jeffrey Chan, an assistant professor of architecture at the National University of Singapore. "Astronauts who live in space stations, despite the abundance of direct sunlight have to live in shade most of the time, and they are only debilitated from the lack of gravity, not light," he said. "Hence, I think if there are any biologically-imposed constraints, psychologically or real, these biological constraints can be overcome through new habits or technologically." ||||
“With about 675 square kilometers (261 square miles) of land, Singapore is only 3.5 times the size of Washington DC and has limited options for increasing its space. Land reclaimed from the sea already accounts for a fifth of its landmass and Singapore's appetite for imported sand for reclamation has caused tensions with neighboring countries concerned about coastal erosion. But its ruling People's Action Party, in power since 1959, sees a bigger population as crucial to its goal of transforming Singapore into what it calls a leading world city. ||||
“The government's new plans call for releasing land for housing and industry by closing golf courses and military training grounds and paving over some of the island's nature reserves. That along with reclamation will free some 5200 hectares (52 square kilometers, 20 square miles) of land to help accommodate an additional 700,000 homes and new shops and factories over the next 20 years. The projected increase in available land lags far behind the planned population increase so projects to put industry and other activities underground are already advancing on several fronts despite the technical challenges and significantly higher costs of subterranean construction. ||||
"Going underground is one option for Singapore as it frees up surface land," said David Tan, assistant chief executive officer of Jurong Town Corporation, Singapore's main development body. The JTC is studying construction of an underground science complex beneath an existing science park that's used by biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies. Projected to cost 50 percent more than a similar facility above ground, it would go down 30 storeys — 80 to 100 meters — and house laboratories, offices and a data center. The corporation has already overseen construction of a massive underground oil bunker in rock caverns that freed up a surface area equivalent to six petrochemical plants. The island also saved 300 hectares of space by putting an ammunition bunker underground. ||||
“A possibility explored for several years is an underground extension of Singapore's Nangyang Technological University after a 1999 study by the government and the university found at least part of the area beneath the campus could be turned into rock caverns. Planners envisage four underground levels that could accommodate lecture theatres, cinemas, libraries, offices, laboratories and car parking. "If we think about it, there are already underground spaces here in Singapore and throughout most major metropolitan regions," said Erik L'Heureux, an architecture professor NUS. "We already have underground train stations and malls, and there are already many buildings here that take advantage of spaces below ground so the real questions are how much time will one spend underground, what goes on there, and how far down from natural light and fresh air." ||||
“For the Singapore for Singaporeans camp, the space squeeze has only highlighted the costs of the government's population and economic policies. Its efforts to attract high-skilled professionals in finance, science and other industries it wants Singapore to be known for has resulted in nature sanctuaries and cemeteries being overrun by golf courses and luxury condominiums. "Ultimately it will be Singaporeans who will suffer," said Rachel Mun, a 33-year old sales assistant. "As it is, Singapore is already bursting with people and things we once depended on like transportation, have become exhausted because of the influx of commuters."||||
Concerns About Sand Shortages in Singapore
Singapore relies heavily on sand for construction, land reclamation, and coastal protection. Vast stockpiles of sand line parts of the country’s shoreline, reflecting the importance of the material to Singapore’s continued development and survival. The city-state has expanded its territory significantly through reclamation projects over the decades, using imported sand to create industrial zones, ports, airports, housing estates, and new urban districts. Rising sea levels caused by climate change have further increased the need for sand, as Singapore prepares to strengthen coastal defenses to protect low-lying areas from future flooding. [Source: Daniel Moss, Bloomberg, November 15, 2020]
Singapore’s demand for sand has become increasingly difficult to meet because neighboring countries have restricted exports over environmental concerns. Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam have all halted sand exports to Singapore after criticism that dredging damaged coastlines, marine ecosystems, and fishing communities. In 2019, Malaysia also banned exports of sea sand, partly due to environmental worries and partly because Malaysia itself has undertaken large-scale reclamation and port expansion projects along the Johor Strait. The restrictions have intensified regional competition for construction materials as countries across Asia continue rapid urban development and seek protection from climate-related sea level rise.
To reduce dependence on imported sand, Singapore has explored alternative approaches and technologies. One proposal involves “poldering,” a Dutch-style system in which seawalls are constructed and water is pumped out to reclaim land more efficiently while using less sand. Researchers have also examined substitutes such as recycled glass, plastic-based pellets, and inland sediment sources. Another possible solution involves turning waste into construction material. On Semakau Island, Singapore’s offshore landfill and waste-processing site, authorities are studying ways to use ash produced by waste incineration as landfill material and as a component in hybrid building materials. Such efforts reflect Singapore’s broader challenge of balancing economic growth, environmental sustainability, and long-term survival as a small island nation dependent on both maritime trade and extensive coastal engineering.
Sumatra Earthquake Raises Concerns About Singapore Buildings on Reclaimed Land
Major commercial and residential developments, including parts of the Marina Bay financial district, have been built on reclaimed land. Concerns about the safety of such developments increased after earthquakes in Indonesia were felt in Singapore, including a 6.3 magnitude earthquake near Sumatra that caused tall buildings in the city’s financial district to sway. During the tremor, workers evacuated office towers such as One Raffles Quay and One Marina Boulevard, raising public questions about how reclaimed land responds to earthquakes. Although no damage or injuries were reported, the incident highlighted concerns about the stability of reclaimed areas during seismic activity. [Source: Koh Gui Qing, Reuters, March 9, 2007 **]
Engineers explain that reclaimed land behaves differently from natural ground because it is composed largely of compacted sea sand. During earthquakes, water-saturated sand can temporarily lose strength and behave more like a liquid, a process known as liquefaction. This can cause buildings on reclaimed land to sway more noticeably than those built on solid natural ground. Experts from institutions such as Nanyang Technological University noted that structures on reclaimed land may experience stronger movement during distant earthquakes, even if they remain structurally stable. The visible swaying of tall buildings during tremors can nevertheless create fear among occupants, particularly in densely built financial districts.
Singapore authorities and engineers maintain that the country’s buildings are designed with strong foundations and modern engineering standards that account for local geological conditions. The Building and Construction Authority (BCA) has stated that buildings on reclaimed land are not necessarily more vulnerable to damage than those on natural terrain. Before development begins, reclaimed land is often left to settle for many years to improve stability and reduce long-term subsidence. High-rise buildings are typically supported by deep steel or concrete piles driven into stable layers beneath the reclaimed soil, ensuring that the structures themselves remain secure even if surrounding land settles gradually over time. Engineers have also suggested that flexible structural joints can help tall buildings better absorb tremors from distant earthquakes.
Singapore’s experience reflects broader global challenges associated with building on reclaimed land. Japan’s Kansai International Airport has experienced significant subsidence after construction. Engineers note that reclaimed land is naturally more prone to sinking because compacting sand and draining trapped water are difficult processes. However, modern engineering techniques can greatly reduce these risks when foundations are carefully designed and monitored. In Singapore, reclaimed land continues to play a major role in urban planning and economic development, particularly in high-value waterfront districts such as Marina Bay.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; National Geographic, Live Science, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Singapore Tourism Board, The Guardian, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Encyclopedia.com, The Conversation, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia and various websites, books and other publications.
Last updated May 2026