DIFFERENT FAITHS IN SINGAPORE: BUDDHISM, CHINESE RELIGIONS, HINDUISM

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN SINGAPORE

Singapore religion by ethnic group

Singapore is multireligious as well as multiethnic. Religions: Buddhist 31.1 percent, Christian 18.9 percent, Muslim 15.6 percent, Taoist 8.8 percent, Hindu 5 percent, other 0.6 percent, none 20 percent (2020 estimate). According to the 2000 census: Buddhist 42.5 percent, Muslim 14.9 percent, Taoist 8.5 percent, Hindu 4 percent, Catholic 4.8 percent, other Christian 9.8 percent, other 0.7 percent, none 14.8 percent . Singapore is surrounded by Muslim countries: Malaysia and Indonesia. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

According to the 2000 census, 2.9 million Singaporeans professed adherence to a religious faith. Of these, Buddhists and Daoists made up 51.0 percent of the total, or 64.4 percent of the Chinese population and 13.9 percent of the “other” ethnic composition. Islam had the second largest following at 14.9 percent, or 99.6 percent of the Malay population. Christians represented 14.6 percent of religious believers and 53.3 percent of the “other” ethnic category. Hindus made up 4.0 percent of believers, or about 55.5 percent of the Indian population. Other religions made up only 0.4 percent of the total, and 14.8 percent professed no religious affiliation. [Source: Library of Congress, 2006]

Seven of the ten major national holidays are religious festivals; two of them were Chinese, two Muslim, two Christian, and one Hindu. The festivals are the Chinese New Year; Vesak Day; Hari Raya Haji, the Muslim pilgrimage festival; Hari Raya Pusa, which marked the end of the fasting month of Ramadan and was a time of renewal; Christmas; Good Friday; and Deepavali. Citizens are encouraged to learn about the festivals of other religious and ethnic groups and to invite members of other groups to their own celebrations and feasts. Public ceremonies such as National Day or the commissioning of military officers have been marked by joint religious services conducted by the Inter-Religious Organization, an ecumenical body founded in 1949 to promote understanding and goodwill among the followers of different religions. *

Buddhism in Singapore

Praying monks and nuns in the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple of Singapore.

Buddhists make up 31.1 percent of Singapore’s population according to a 2020 estimate in the CIA World Factbook. Canonical Buddhism is represented in Singapore as Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism. This form of Buddhism prevails in Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia and differs from the Mahayana Buddhism of China, Korea, and Japan in both doctrine and organization. However, many Buddhists, particularly those of Chinese descent, practice Mahayana Buddhism at home.

Buddhist temples in Singapore have traditionally been autonomous, without a centralised body or common practice from which religious leaders could emerge. It was Singapore's politicians, rather than any individual Buddhist leader, who created the conditions under which Buddhism could flourish by promoting language and education policies that favoured the development of a more 'modern' and streamlined form of Buddhism. This has come to replace traditional Chinese religious practices. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

An entire generation of Singaporeans has received instruction in a more modern, doctrine-driven and ethically based form of Buddhism through the Religious Knowledge curriculum offered in the country's secondary schools. This may be largely responsible for the significant increase in the number of people identifying as Buddhist compared with just a generation ago.

History of Buddhism in Singapore

The history of Buddhism in Singapore began with the syncretic religious practices of Chinese immigrants between the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The majority practised a blend of Chinese traditions, including Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. The earliest Taoist temples in Singapore were constructed in the nineteenth century by Chinese immigrants and contained deities and masters from both Taoism and Confucianism, as well as statues of the Buddha in his many forms. Chinese Mahayana Buddhism venerates and worships a wide range of gods, including not only Gautama Buddha and numerous bodhisattvas, but also Taoist deities and revered Confucian teachers. Consequently, the Chinese practice of Buddhism in Singapore has always been considerably more eclectic than in India or Thailand, where Theravada Buddhism is predominant. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006~]

Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum in Singapore

Theravada Buddhism was brought by Sinhalese migrants from Ceylon (Sri Lanka), who also influenced the architectural style of Thai and Vietnamese Theravada temples. These latter were staffed by Thai or Vietnamese monks, some of whom were originally members of the overseas Chinese communities of those countries and served a predominantly Chinese laity, using Hokkien, Teochiu, Cantonese, or English. Singapore was also home to a number of Chinese sects and syncretic cults that called themselves Buddhist but taught their own particular doctrines and lacked properly ordained Buddhist monks. [Source: Library of Congress]

During the 1980s and 1990s, a combination of social factors driven primarily by education and language policies resulted in a new, reformed form of Buddhism replacing Taoism as Singapore's most popular religion. Some Singaporean Buddhist temples now offer activities similar to those of many Christian churches, such as social and outreach programmes, creating a sense that Buddhism is part of a unified religious community. While many traditional Chinese temples reflected syncretic practices that transcended religious boundaries, reformed Buddhism in Singapore has emphasised distinctively Buddhist practices, encouraging the application of religious teachings to real-life situations. Consequently, Buddhism is increasingly perceived as a practical and worldly religion, particularly among the younger generation, contributing to its remarkable surge in popularity. ~

Buddhist Practices in Singapore

Singapore has numerous Buddhist temples, centers, and organizations representing both the Theravada and Mahayana traditions. Among the country’s oldest and most prominent Buddhist sites is Siong Lim Temple, completed in 1908. Other major temples include the Thai-style Theravada temple Sakya Muni Buddha Gaya Temple, also known as the Temple of a Thousand Lights, and the large modern monastery complex Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

For many Buddhists in Singapore, statues of the Buddha and bodhisattvas are treated as sacred objects. Altars dedicated to the Buddha, Taoist deities, traditional Chinese gods, or Confucian figures are commonly found in homes and businesses. One of the most widely venerated figures is Guanyin, the bodhisattva associated with compassion.

Maitreya Bodhisattva statue and Buddhist monks in the Hundred Dragons Hall. Buddha Tooth Relic Temple, Singapore

The principal Buddhist holiday in Singapore is Vesak Day, which commemorates the birth and enlightenment of the Buddha. Observed on the full moon of the lunar month of Vesakha, usually in April or May, the holiday is marked by temple visits, charitable acts, prayers, and candlelit processions.

Although some Buddhists in Singapore follow vegetarian diets, many do not, reflecting the broader influence of Chinese cuisine in Singapore, where pork, chicken, and seafood are common foods.

Buddhist practice in Singapore often centers on rituals performed at home altars, business shrines, or temples, where worshippers may light incense and bow before statues or images of Buddhist or Chinese religious figures. Younger and English-educated Buddhists are more likely to participate in meditation classes, dharma talks, or services influenced by Tibetan Buddhist traditions. Some temples and organizations also hold regular Sunday services that include hymns, readings, and congregational participation in a format similar to Christian church services.

Many Buddhist temples and organizations in Singapore are also involved in charitable activities, including assistance for the poor, elderly, sick, and disabled, while generally avoiding direct political activism.

Buddhist Monks in Singapore

The vast majority of the Buddhist monks in Singapore are from other countries. They wear robes appropriate to their order: generally orange for Theravada Buddhists; maroon for Tibetan Buddhists and gray for Mahayana Buddhists.

Buddhists in Singapore do not tend to mark rites of passage. The custom of encouraging young men to serve as novice monks for periods of months or years, common among Theravada Buddhists in Thailand, Myanmar and Laos, is not practiced in Singapore, Most Buddhist monks in Singapore have been trained outside the country.

Singapore has had a few corrupt monks with lavish lifestyles. In November 2009, AFP reported: “A high-living Buddhist monk who ran one of Singapore's most well-known charities was jailed for 10 months for fraud, court officials said. Shi Ming Yi, 47, was handed the sentence after being convicted last month of conspiring with his personal aide, Raymong Yeung, 34, to cheat the Ren Ci charity out of 50,000 Singapore dollars (36,000 US). [Source: AFP, November 20, 2009]

“Yeung was sentenced to nine months for the crime Shi was the founder of Ren Ci — a charity that provides subsidised medical care to elderly patients — and had lived the high life, owning several luxury cars and properties in Singapore and Australia, before being caught. He had also owned a horse in Australia.In 2004, Shi, who was Ren Ci's chief executive at the time, made the unauthorised loan of 50,000 dollars from the charity's coffers to Yeung, who used the money to pay for a friend's home renovation in Hong Kong. The pair said the money was loaned to a shop affiliated with the charity, but external auditors found this to be untrue.”

Chinese Religion in Singapore

The Chinese practiced Chinese popular religion, a distinctive and complex syncretic religion that incorporates some elements from canonical Buddhism and Daoism but focuses on the worship of gods, ghosts, and ancestors. It emphasizes ritual and practice over doctrine and belief, has no commonly recognized name, and is so closely entwined with Chinese culture and social organization that it cannot proselytize. In Singapore its public manifestations included large temples housing images of deities believed to respond to human appeals for guidance or relief from affliction. and use of the common Chinese cycle of calendrical festivals. [Source: Library of Congress, 1989 *]

Buddhists make up 31.1 percent and Taoists make up 8.8 percent of Singapore’s population according to a 2020 estimate in the CIA World Factbook. Confucianism is recognized more as a philosophy and code of living than a religion.

Although Confucianism is not recognised as a religion for census purposes, Singapore is a centre for neo-Confucian thought and former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew has played an active role in the International Confucian Association. Singapore's main Chinese holidays reflect traditional Confucian values more than overtly religious ones.[Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

Taoism in Singapore

Taoism in Singapore is closely intertwined with Chinese folk religion and elements of Confucianism. Religious practices commonly include ancestor worship, veneration of deities, ritual ceremonies, and offerings made at temples and household altars. Much of the organized Taoist community is coordinated through the Taoist Federation of Singapore, which was established in 1990. Taoism in Singapore emphasizes harmony between individuals, society, and the natural world, and many Chinese Singaporean families combine Taoist and Buddhist practices. While many adherents are older adults, younger followers have increasingly shown interest in the philosophical and spiritual teachings of the religion.

Singapore has more than 500 Taoist temples and affiliated organizations. Among the most historically significant is Thian Hock Keng Temple, built in 1841 and regarded as one of the country’s oldest Chinese temples. Another major site is San Qing Gong, a modern Taoist temple known for housing one of the largest Taoist shrines in Southeast Asia. In 1996, the Taoist Mission (Singapore) was founded to promote orthodox Taoist teachings, research, and religious education.

Taoist festivals and rituals remain an important part of religious life in Singapore. Major observances include Hungry Ghost Festival and Chinese New Year, as well as “yew keng” deity processions in which statues of gods are carried through the streets. Common rituals include incense offerings and ceremonies such as “Crossing the Bridge of Peace and Safety,” which devotees perform to pray for protection, health, and good fortune.

Taoism in Singapore has also adapted to urban and environmental concerns. Some temples have introduced eco-friendly incense burners and other measures aimed at reducing smoke, ash, and pollution. The religion has also incorporated unique local beliefs and traditions, including devotion to local spiritual figures such as the “German Girl” deity, or Nadu Guniang, associated with Pulau Ubin. This reflects the syncretic nature of Taoist practice and its integration with local culture and folklore.

Interest in Taoism is declining. Census figures revealed the Taoist share of the population plunged from 30 percent in 1980 to 22.4 percent in 1990 to 8.5 percent in 2000. Three-quarters of those queried who abandoned Taoism said they felt disconnected to the religion or perceived a "lack of meaning" in following it, the report said. While Taoism and Buddhism are the traditional belief systems in Singapore, most people adopt them as a matter of birthright, rather than choosing to follow them as spiritual life codes. [Source: Earth Times, August 9, 2008] Although the number of Singaporean Taoists declined during the 1980s and 1990s, the religion plays a significant role in the Chinese community. Taoist deities sit alongside Buddha and portraits of ancestors on many family altars, and many older Singaporeans practise a syncretic religion combining elements of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Noteworthy Taoist temples include Thaian Hock Keng Temple, an important site for Singapore's Hokkien-speaking immigrants since the early days of settlement, and Tua Peh Kong Temple on Kusu Island, a popular pilgrimage site visited particularly during the ninth lunar month. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

Chinese Religion Practices in Singapore

Chinese popular religion practitioners use of the common Chinese cycle of calendrical festivals. These occasions included the lunar New Year (in January or February), a festival of renewal and family solidarity; Qing Ming, celebrated by the solar calender on April 5th (105 days after the winter solstice), to remember the ancestors and worship at their graves; the fifteenth of the fifth lunar month (April or May), in Singapore known as Vesak Day and celebrated as marking the birth of the Buddha; the festival of the hungry ghosts in the seventh lunar month and the mid-autumn festival on the fifteenth of the eighth lunar month, an occasion for exchanging gifts of sweet round mooncakes and admiring the full moon. [Source: Library of Congress, 1989 *]

Singapore’s main holiday is Chinese New Year, which marks the start of the lunar new year in January or February. The festival culminates on the eve of the new year and the first two days, during which time Chinese families come together to exchange greetings and hong bao (red envelopes containing money), and show respect to their elders. During the Qingming Festival, homage is paid to ancestors. The Dragon Boat Festival commemorates the death of the Chinese poet and scholar Qu Yuan. During the Hungry Ghost Festival offerings are placed outside to appease spirits of the dead. The Hungry Ghost Festival is a major Hokkien holiday, marked by domestic feasting and elaborate public rituals to feed and placate the potentially dangerous souls of those with no descendants to worship them. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

All Chinese temples held one or more annual festivals, marked by street processions, performances of Chinese traditional operas, and domestic banquets to which those who supported the temple, either because of residential propinquity, subethnic affiliation with a particular temple and its deity, or personal devotion to the god, invited their friends and business associates. To prevent the disruption of traffic and preserve public order, the government limited the length and route of street processions and prohibited the use of the long strings of firecrackers that had previously been a component of all Chinese religious display.*

Some festivals or customs that had little religious significance or were not practiced by the southeastern Chinese migrants were promoted by the government's Singapore Tourist Promotion Board for their spectacular and innocuous content. These included the summer dragon boat races, originally held only in China's Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River Valley, and the lantern festival in which paper lanterns in the shape of animals or other objects are carried through the streets by children or, if especially impressive, displayed in parks and temples. In China the lantern festival is celebrated in the first lunar month at the end of the New Year season, but in Singapore it is combined with the mid-autumn festival. *

Giant Candles, Joss Sticks Banned in Singapore for Polluting Air

In 1998, DPA and the South China Morning Post reported: “Giant incense sticks and candles used in Chinese religious practices have been banned by authorities. Officials said smoke from the towering objects could pollute the environment, and that some devotees had recently been trying to outdo each other by using bigger joss sticks and candles. Some had been using incense pillars as tall as a three-storey building, burning up to 25 giant sticks for more than 24 hours at a time. The huge sticks can cost up to S$3,000 each. [Source: DPA, South China Morning Post, February 17, 1998 /=/]

“Incense sticks are an important component of Taoist religious practice. Worshippers believe the smoke helps waft prayers towards their deities. But officials said competition for the biggest joss sticks went against the spirit of the religion, the Straits Times reported. "Some people forget about praying and religion and think it is like a contest now to get bigger and bigger joss sticks," Singaporean business owner Chang Seng Chye, 42, told the newspaper. The practice of using massive joss sticks is common only in Singapore and Malaysia - where the sticks are made - and not in mainland China, Taiwan or Hong Kong, the Straits Times said. /=/

“The Singapore Environment Ministry has set strict size limits on joss sticks and candles. The new regulations limit the size of incense sticks to two metres in length and 7.5 centimetres in diameter. No more than six may be burnt simultaneously at the same location. Candles are now limited to 60 centimetres in length, and only two can be burned at a time. Joss sticks and candles may not be burned within 30 metres of any building. Offenders can be fined up to S$2,000. /=/

Hinduism in Singapore

Hindus make up 5 percent of Singapore’s population according to a 2020 estimate in the CIA World Factbook. Singapore's sizeable Hindu community is almost entirely made up of ethnic Indians, most of whom are descended from labourers brought to Singapore by the British in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The country's oldest Hindu temple, the Sri Mariamman Temple, was once used as temporary accommodation for new immigrants and now serves as an important centre for Tamil culture. Completed in 1860 and significantly restored since that time, the Sri Thandayuthapani Temple (also known as Chettiar's Hindu Temple) is one of the grandest and most opulent Hindu temples in the region. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

Hindus have been part of Singapore's population since its foundation in 1819, and some of the old Hindu temples, such as the Sri Mariamman Temple, were declared national historical sites in the 1980s and so preserved from demolition. Singapore's Hindus adapted their religion to their minority status in two primary ways — compartmentalization and ritual reinterpretation. Compartmentalization referred to the Hindus tendency to distinguish between the home, in which they maintained a nearly completely orthodox Hindu pattern of diet and ritual observance, and the secular outer world of work, school, and public life, where they did not apply categories of purity and pollution.

Singapore lacked the tightly organized caste groups of communities found in India but replaced them in large-scale temple festivals with groups representing those of the same occupation or place of employment. [Source: Library of Congress]

Hindu Festivals Practices in Singapore

The major Hindu holidays are the Hindu New Year, in April or May; Thaipusam, a festival during which penitents fulfilled vows to the deity Lord Subramanya by participating in a procession while carrying kavadi, heavy decorated frameworks holding offerings of milk, fruit, and flowers; and Deepavali, the Festival of Lights. Deepavali, a celebration of the victory of light over darkness and hence of good over evil, was a national holiday. [Source: Library of Congress]

Thaipusam is the most significant Hindu religious rite in Singapore. It is held during the Tamil month of Thai (January/February). During this festival, devotees often pierce their skin with metal skewers and carry a load-bearing pole known as a 'kavadi' through the streets in honour of Lord Subramaniam. This procession, which is especially popular among working-class Tamil-speaking Hindus, ends when the worshipper deposits an offering attached to their kavadi inside the Sri Thandayuthapani Temple. [Source: William Peterson, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

Thimithi, a ritual in which devotees of the goddess Draupadi walk on burning coals at the Sri Mariamman Temple, takes place in the Tamil month of Aipasi (October/November). Also in Aipasi, the festival of Diwali transcends all Hindu ethnic and caste lines. During this festival, the defeat of the demon Narakasura by Lord Krishna and the victory of light over darkness are commemorated through the lighting of lamps and large-scale public lighting displays in Singapore's Little India neighbourhood.

On the visit of an important Kerala temple idol to Singapore, The Pioneer reported: A precious idol from the 5000-year-old Chakkulathukavu Shree Bhagavathy Amman Temple in Kerala has been brought to Singapore so that Indian worshippers could worship the deity. Singapore again blessed with the visit by the divine utsavar deity of Goddess Sree Bhagavathy from the famous Chakkulathukavu Sree Bhagavathy Temple in Kerala, India. The Temple is dedicated to Goddess Durga who is worshipped and fondly referred to as Chakkulathamma or Amma by her devotees. This Temple is well known around the world because of the many miraculous happenings here and the Temple is today a popular pilgrim centre in India. The main attraction of this Temple is the cooking and offering of “Pongala” to the Goddess by devotees who wish to wash away their grief, problems, confusion, etc. To enable all devotees in Singapore to receive the blessings of Goddess Sree Bhagavathy, various religious ceremonies are being organised by the Singapore Malayalee Hindu Samajam with the support of Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple and Sri Vairavimada Kaliamman Temple. [Source: The Pioneer, September 3, 2010]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; National Geographic, Live Science, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Singapore Tourism Board, The Guardian, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Encyclopedia.com, The Conversation, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026