EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
From 1991 to 2000, the literacy rate for persons aged 10 to 64 years of age increased from 88.6 percent to 93.5 percent. Government-assisted schools provide free education for children between ages six and 18, but only primary education (ages six to 12) is compulsory. In 2003 Malaysia operated 7,498 primary schools and 1,916 secondary schools and also funded specialized schools for religious education and special education. Primary education starts at age six, secondary education at age 12, and students may attend vocational or technical schools in lieu of the final four years of secondary education. Private schools receive no government funds but are subject to government regulation. [Source: Library of Congress, 2006]
Malaysia has, since its inception, been generous with government funds for education, It prioritized education in 1997 by awarding it the largest portion of the budget at 22 percent — with a 30 percent increase in funds from the previous year. This trend has continued to this day. The Ministry of Education receives the lion's share of national resources, landing the largest single allocation of any ministry at over RM66 billion (US$16.6 billion) in the early 2020s.
The Malaysian government spent 8 percent of the $100 billion gross domestic product on education in 2002, more than neighbors Singapore or Thailand, according to the Asian Strategy and Leadership Institute, a Kuala Lumpur-based research group. Even so, Malaysia and Thailand lag behind Four Tigers (Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong) in education. Even though Malaysia has roughly the same number of people as Taiwan, it has only eight universities compared to 56 in Taiwan. Moreover, some contend, the education system in Malaysia has not created enough skilled workers.
According to the Malaysian government: Malaysia has established a strong infrastructure to support the learning process at different stages of life. For more information about the education system in Malaysia, please visit the website of the Ministry of Education (for pre-tertiary levels) or the Ministry of Higher Education. Private education has also become a thriving industry in Malaysia and offers students and scholars viable alternatives to public schooling. StudyMalaysia.com is a useful source of information in this area. [Source: Malaysian Government]
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Education Statistics for Malaysia
Literacy: total population: 95.8 percent (2022 estimate); male: 96.8 percent (2022 estimate); female: 94.7 percent (2022 estimate). According to the 2000 census), the literacy (age 15 and over can read and write): total population: 88.7 percent, male: 92 percent, female: 85.4 percent [Source: CIA World Factbook,]
Education expenditure: 3.5 percent of GDP (2023 estimate); 14.1 percent national budget (2023 estimate). In 2010, education expenditures were 5.1 percent of GDP, 70th in the world:
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education): total: 12 years (2023 estimate); male: 11 years (2023 estimate); female: 12 years In 2008: School life expectancy; total: 13 years; male: 12 years, female: 13 years.
Early Childhood”
Attendance in early childhood education: 53 percent.
Early stimulation and responsive care (any adult household member): 25 percent
Learning materials at home — children's books: 56 percent.
Learning materials at home — playthings: 62 percent.
Children left in inadequate supervision: 3 percent
[Source: UNICEF DATA data.unicef.org]
Education
Youth literacy rate (15 — 24 years): 97 percent
[Source: UNICEF DATA data.unicef.org]
Ranking of education systems and worker productivity in Asia by Hong Kong-based Political and Economic Risk Consultancy: 1) South Korea; 2) Singapore; 3) Japan; 4) Taiwan; 5) India; 6) China; 7) Malaysia; 8) Hong Kong; 9) the Philippines; 10) Thailand; 11) Vietnam; 12) Indonesia
Performance by Malaysia on TIMSS and PISA Tests
PISA Test for students age 15 (2022):
Math: 409, 54th out of 81 countries. In comparison the U.S. was ranked 34th with a score of 465 and an average of 472 points in OECD countries.
Science: 416, 52nd out of 81 countries.In comparison the U.S. was ranked 16th with a score of 499 and to an average of 476 points in OECD countries.
Reading: 388, 60th out of 81 countries. In comparison the U.S. was ranked 9th with a score of 504 and Japan was ranked 3rd with a score of 516 The OECD countries average was 485 points.
[Source: PISA, OECD, Wikipedia wikipedia.org ]
Malaysia did somehwat better on the PISA test in 2018, which occurred before the Covid-19 pandemic, while the one in 2022 took place after it.
PISA Test for students age 15 (2018):
Math: 440, 47th out of 78 countries. In comparison the U.S. was ranked 37th with a score of 478.
Science: 438, 48th out of 78 countries. In comparison the U.S. was ranked 18th with a score of 502.
Reading: 415, 56th out of 78 countries. In comparison the U.S. was ranked 13th with a score of 509 and Japan was ranked 15th with a score of 504 The OECD countries average was 485 points.
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a worldwide study conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) of both OECD and non OECD countries. It was first performed in 2000 and has been every three years since then. Each student takes a two-hour computer based test. The aim of TIMSS is to evaluate educational systems by measuring 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading, providing comparable data to assist countries in improving their education policies and outcomes. It mostly measures problem solving and cognition.
TIMSS Test (2023): Grade Eight: Math: 366, ranked 36th out of 44 countries.
Grade Eight Science: 426, ranked 33rd second out of 44 countries.
Grade Four Math: 606, ranked second out of 47 countries behind Singapore but ahead of
[Source: TIMSS timssandpirls.bc.edu , Wikipedia wikipedia.org ]
The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is a series of international assessments by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) of the mathematics and science knowledge of students around the world. In country, a minimum of 4,000 to 5,000 students is evaluated using contextual data taking into consideration the conditions in which participating students learn mathematics and science. TIMSS was established by the IEA to compare students' educational achievement and learn from the experiences of others in designing effective education policy. This assessment was first conducted in 1995, and has been administered every four years since then.The (IEA) is a Netherlands based independent, international cooperative of national research institutions and governmental research agencies.
Evaluation of the Performance by Malaysia on the PISA Test
In Malaysia, 41 percent of students achieved at least Level 2 proficiency in mathematics in the 2022 PISA test, well below the OECD average of 69 percent. Students performing at this level are able to interpret and recognize simple mathematical representations without direct instructions. Only 1 percent of Malaysian students were classified as top performers, reaching Levels 5 or 6 in mathematics, compared with the OECD average of 9 percent. Students at these higher levels can model complex situations mathematically and evaluate appropriate problem-solving strategies. [Source: OECD]
The largest share of Malaysian students, 27 percent, fell within the second international quintile of the socio-economic scale, placing them neither among the most disadvantaged nor the most advantaged participants in the assessment. These students recorded an average mathematics score of 387 points. Students with similar socio-economic backgrounds in countries such as Türkiye and Viet Nam generally achieved significantly higher scores.
Socio-economic background continued to influence academic performance in Malaysia. Students from the top 25 percent of socio-economic status outperformed those from the bottom 25 percent by 82 score points in mathematics. This gap was close to the OECD average difference of 93 points. Socio-economic status accounted for 18 percent of the variation in mathematics performance in Malaysia, compared with an OECD average of 15 percent.
Girls in Malaysia outperformed boys by 10 score points in mathematics and by 31 score points in reading. Internationally, boys scored higher than girls in mathematics in 40 participating countries and economies, while girls performed better in 17. In reading, girls outperformed boys in nearly all participating education systems, with higher average scores in 79 of the 81 countries and economies that took part in PISA 2022.
Education System of Malaysia
Education is the responsibility of the Government and it is committed to providing a sound education to all. The Malaysian education system encompasses education beginning from pre-school to university. Pre-tertiary education (pre-school to secondary education) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (MOE) while tertiary or higher education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). In May 2013, the two ministries merged to form the Ministry of Education Malaysia (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia in Malay). The vision of the Government is to make Malaysia a centre of educational excellence. The Government provides more than 95 percent of primary and secondary education as well as about 60 percent of the tertiary education, with the private sector providing the balance. [Source: Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education]
The private education providers in Malaysia can be broadly grouped into two categories, depending on the levels of education offered, ranging from pre-school to tertiary education. These two categories of private institutions are: 1) Private Educational Institutions (PEIs) which provide education at preschool, primary and secondary levels. They comprise private schools and foreign system schools. 2) Private Higher Educational Institutions (PHEIs) which provide tertiary education leading to the awarding of certificate, diploma and degree qualifications.
Children in Malaysia can begin their education at the age of four in pre-schools, although this is not compulsory. Primary education begins on the first day of January of the current school year, when the child reaches the age of six. Originally, only the first six years of primary education were compulsory, but since 2015 the final five years of secondary education have also become compulsory— bringing the total years of compulsory education to 11. The government provides free education for six years at primary level and five years at secondary level. At the end of secondary education, students take the public examination Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM). [Source: studymalaysia.com, March 16, 2015]
Students who wish to pursue higher education after secondary school must have the necessary academic qualifications and be able to fund their studies. School leavers with SPM qualifications can choose to obtain a pre-university qualification, such as sixth form, matriculation programmes or GCE 'A' levels, or study for a certificate or diploma at a higher education institution. The time needed to complete a pre-university programme varies depending on the programme type — students usually take one year to complete a matriculation programme or STAM, and one-and-a-half to two years for STPM and A-levels.
At the higher education phase, study opportunities include certificates, diplomas and undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications. Undergraduate studies consist of bachelor's degrees and professional qualifications, while postgraduate studies offer master's degrees and PhDs. Generally, higher education at diploma level is for school leavers with a secondary school certificate, such as the SPM, who are usually aged 17 or over, while bachelor's degrees require post-secondary qualifications, such as the STPM, GCE A Levels, or other equivalent pre-university qualifications, and are usually for students who are aged 19 or over.
Book: “Educational Dualism in Malaysia: Implication for Theory and Practice” by Rosnani Hashim (Oxford University Press, 1996)
History of Education in Malaysia
Malaysia has often been cited as an example of a country that achieved rapid educational progress through sustained government planning and investment. By the end of the twentieth century, the country’s literacy rate had reached about 93 percent, among the highest in the developing world. Since gaining independence, or Merdeka, in 1957, Malaysia steadily expanded and modernized its education system. The push intensified under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad and his “Vision 2020” program, which aimed to transform Malaysia into a fully developed and technologically advanced nation. Education policies focused on producing skilled “knowledge workers” capable of mastering new technologies, encouraging innovation, and competing with students from leading universities worldwide. [Source: D. R. Sar Desai, World Education Encyclopedia, Gale Group Inc., 2001]
Before independence, the education system in British Malaya lacked a unified structure. Schools operated largely along ethnic lines, with Malay, Chinese, and Indian communities maintaining separate institutions that often followed curricula imported from their countries of origin. In 1951, the colonial government introduced reforms based on the Barnes Report, which recommended a national school system using Malay and English as the main languages of instruction. The report hoped that separate Chinese- and Tamil-medium schools would eventually disappear, but the proposal faced resistance, particularly from the Chinese community, which wanted Chinese and Tamil languages and cultures recognized within the emerging national identity.
To address ethnic concerns, the colonial administration adopted a compromise that allowed bilingual education in Malay schools and trilingual options in Chinese and Tamil schools. A common curriculum for all schools was also proposed in the hope of building national unity. In 1955, the Razak Report further developed the idea of a national education system centered on Malay as the national language while also preserving the languages and cultures of other communities. The report became the basis of the Education Ordinance of 1957 after independence.
The Razak Report proposed two types of secondary schools: “national schools,” which used Malay as the medium of instruction, and “national-type schools,” which used Chinese, Tamil, or English. Both were eligible for government financial support. In the years after independence, the government emphasized national unity while allowing parents to choose mother-tongue education at the primary level. During the 1960s, educational reforms focused more on improving curriculum quality and teacher training than on language policy. Schools receiving government aid were required to adopt the national curriculum and strengthen instruction in subjects such as mathematics and science to support the country’s growing modern economy.
In 1967, Malaysia formally declared Bahasa Melayu the national language for administration and education. Malay gradually became the main language of instruction in schools and universities as part of efforts to strengthen national integration. At the same time, citizens continued to have the right to use their mother tongues and other languages.
By the late 1990s and early 2000s, Malaysia shifted its attention toward technology-based education and the development of a “knowledge economy” or “K-economy.” The government promoted information technology as a way to reduce the digital divide between urban and rural areas. Earlier affirmative-action policies favoring Bumiputra businesses were increasingly supplemented by programs aimed at expanding access to technology and computer literacy among the broader population.
A major component of this strategy was the development of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), a technology infrastructure initiative designed to attract high-tech and multimedia industries. By the end of 1999, dozens of MSC-approved companies were operating in software and multimedia sectors, contributing significantly to manufacturing growth. Critics argued that the benefits mainly reached urban elites and large businesses, leaving rural and lower-income populations behind. In response, the government expanded investments in education and technology access. The 2001 national budget funded computer programs in schools, the construction of new schools and universities, and hundreds of millions of dollars for training institutes. These efforts were intended to expand digital literacy and position Malaysia alongside regional leaders such as Singapore in narrowing the digital divide.
Development of Malaysia’s Education System
Cheah Boon Kheng of the National University of Singapore wrote: “The liberal - minded Tunku Abdul Rahman’s policies of social engineering and nation - building allowed both an integrated and parallel two - tiered system of education to emerge. This dualism seemed to satisfy the various ethnic communities in the country up to the present. The integrated system comprises a national education system in Malay (the national language) while the parallel system allows government - aided Chinese vernacular primary and secondary Chinese schools and Tamil vernacular primary schools to exist, as well as non - aided but privately - funded Chinese secondary schools. Both systems, however, follow a national curriculum. These policies were arrived at after a compromise among the communal parties within the ruling Alliance and after much debate, and to overcome dissatisfaction among Chinese educational groups. It was clear to the governing parties that if a compromise was not reached, Chinese dissatisfaction over Chinese education and Chinese language could be exploited by the communist in surgency to stir up trouble for its own interests. [Source: Cheah Boon Kheng, National University of Singapore, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 11, 1 (June 2009): 132]
Communist subversion in Chinese schools had appeared intermittently in the 1950s when Chinese students demonstrated spectacular acts of violence, but the educational issue did not take on the dimensions o f a major political problem, as it did in Singapore, largely because the MCA and Chinese educational groups had dominated the national debate on Chinese education and involved themselves in negotiations with the moderate government leaders of the UMNO unde r Tunku Abdul Rahman’s leadershi p. However, in terms of social engineering and national integration, the introduction of a national educational system in which Malay, the national language, was widely used to teach a common curriculum did attempt to foster national unity and a national identity for all students in schools. Although the CPM in the 1960s had adopted a new policy to treat all races as equal and to demand the languages of all races be made official languages, 28 the continuing public acceptance o f Malaysia’s language policy and national educational policy increasingly sidelined the CPM’s new language and culture policy.
Ministry of Education and Malaysia’s School Administration
Malaysia’s Ministry of Education develops the national education policy in line with the goals and objectives set by the Prime Minister, the Minister for Education and the Cabinet. It periodically prepares plans, programmes and projects to align with the national Five-Year Plans. Although the country's constitution provides for the decentralisation of certain powers to the states, throughout Malaysia's history the federal Ministry of Education has played a leading role in setting policies and guidelines for state-level education departments and, at times, district-level officials responsible for education. The Ministry of Education has historically maintained primary control over education policy, curriculum standards, and administrative guidelines for state and district education authorities. [Source: D. R. Sar Desai, World Education Encyclopedia, Gale Group Inc., 2001]
The Malaysian education system is generally divided into pre-tertiary and tertiary levels. Previously, two governing authorities were responsible for education: the Ministry of Education (MOE) was responsible for pre-tertiary education (from preschool to secondary education and teacher training), while the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) was responsible for higher education. However, in May 2013, the two ministries merged to form the Ministry of Education Malaysia (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia in Malay). [Source: studymalaysia.com, March 16, 2015]
The Ministry of Education operates through two main branches: the academic wing and the administrative wing, headed respectively by the Director-General of Education and the Secretary-General. At the top of the ministry’s policy structure is the Educational Planning Committee (EPC), chaired by the Minister of Education. Specialized subcommittees under the EPC oversee areas such as curriculum development, textbook preparation, higher education, finance, scholarships, and teacher training before submitting recommendations for approval.
Supporting the ministry are numerous academic and technical divisions responsible for implementing educational policies. The Educational Planning and Research Division plays a central role in supporting long-term policy development. The Curriculum Development Center designs curricula, promotes teaching methods, and prepares instructional materials, while the Textbook Division ensures that textbooks are updated and distributed in accordance with curriculum revisions. Educational technology and audiovisual support are managed by the Educational Technology Division. Technical and vocational education is supervised by a separate division responsible for vocational secondary schools and polytechnics, including curriculum updates and technical facilities. Other divisions oversee computer services, national examinations, school inspections, and Islamic education.
At the state level, education departments headed by state directors are responsible for implementing national education programs and policies. These departments monitor curriculum delivery, provide professional guidance to teachers, and organize in-service training programs, particularly for the introduction of new curricula and teaching methods. State education departments also maintain regular communication with the federal ministry through meetings and reports that provide feedback on the effectiveness of educational programs.
Since the mid-1990s, Malaysia has introduced Total Quality Management (TQM) practices across government ministries and agencies, including the education sector. Education policy, particularly in higher education, has increasingly been linked to national manpower planning and economic development goals. The government has aimed to ensure that the education system produces a sufficient supply of skilled workers to support economic growth and Malaysia’s ambition to become a regional center of educational excellence.
In 1992, the Public Services Department introduced TQM guidelines for all government institutions and established certification procedures based on TQM and ISO 9000 standards. Higher education institutions were required to adopt these quality-management systems and undergo performance audits. Through these regulations, the Public Services Department played an important role in overseeing and regulating higher education administration and quality standards in Malaysia.
Evaluation of Malaysian Education Based and PISA and OECD Surveys
In the early 2020s in Malaysia, 94 percent of students reported attending pre-primary education for at least one year, matching the OECD average of 94 percent. Across OECD countries, students who attended pre-primary education for one year or longer generally achieved higher mathematics scores at age 15 than those who attended for less than a year or not at all, even after accounting for socio-economic background. [Source: OECD]
Malaysia recorded one of the smallest differences in students’ sense of belonging at school between those from advantaged and disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. The gap in the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) was 0.08, ranking Malaysia 72nd out of 73 participating countries and economies in 2022.
Students in Malaysia also reported stronger agreement than those in many OECD and partner countries regarding the regulation of information and communications technology (ICT) use at school. Malaysia recorded a PISA index score of 0.66 in this category, ranking third among 52 participating education systems in 2022.
The share of teachers working part-time in schools attended by 15-year-olds was among the smallest recorded in PISA-participating countries and economies. Only 0.2 percent of teachers worked part-time, placing Malaysia last among 80 participating systems in the 2022 assessment. Following the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, Malaysian students reported relatively low confidence in their ability to engage in self-directed learning compared with students in other OECD and partner countries. Malaysia recorded a PISA index score of -0.28, ranking 72nd out of 76 countries and economies in 2022.
The gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students in confidence toward self-directed learning was among the largest in the PISA study. Malaysia recorded a difference of 0.52 on the PISA index, ranking third out of 73 participating countries and economies in 2022.
Malaysia, English Education and Jobs
The Malaysian Employers Federation had lobbied strongly for English to be retained as the medium of instruction. “This is a setback for the efforts to enhance the command of English for the students,” said Shamsuddin Bardan, the federation’s executive director. While Mr. Shamsuddin welcomed the government’s decision to improve students’ English proficiency by increasing the number of English teachers, he maintained that poor English skills remained a major weakness in the local workforce. Mr. Chin said that English was the language used in Malaysia’s private sector. “A lot of Malaysian parents are very worried about the standard of English,” he said. “A lot of parents realize that for their children, without English they can’t survive, not in the private sector.”
Reuters reported: ““Malaysia has said recently that it wants to attract more high-value investment in areas like banking and finance, industries that are global and typically demand good English. A recent report from Morgan Stanley showed that Malaysia's tertiary enrolment and completion ratios were six and seven percentage points behind the average countries with a similar level of income per capita. That leaves it at a disadvantage as it seeks to tap into foreign investment which is increasingly using countries like China and Vietnam which have larger domestic markets and bigger reservoirs of cheap labour. Neighbouring Singapore split from becoming part of Malaysia and retained English as the primary language of education. The city state has emerged as one of the richest nations on earth with a per capita income of $51,649 in 2008 while Malaysia's is $14,225, based on 2008 data. [Source: Reuters, July 8, 2009]
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board, Compton’s Encyclopedia, The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, and various books, websites and other publications.
Last updated May 2026