ISLAM IN MALAYSIA: HISTORY, GROUPS, PHILOSOPHIES

ISLAM IN MALAYSIA

Muslim men in Sarawak

Almost all Muslim Malaysians are Sunni Muslims. Malays are by definition Muslims and are not allowed to convert. They are regarded as moderate Muslims. Malaysia along with Indonesia, and Turkey are regarded as the most liberal and open Muslim countries. Since the definition of Malay in the constitution requires them to be Muslim, Islam is an integral part of Malay identity. The vast majority of Malaysian Malays follow Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i school, which heavily influences their food, clothing, festivals, and daily life. In some towns and cities you can find Sufi brotherhoods.

Malaysia is a major Muslim country where Islam is not an indigenous religion but was imposed by what some have called “Arab spiritual imperialists.” But that is not to say that Muslim Malaysians are not devout. There is always a waiting list of Malays trying to attend the pilgrimage to Mecca.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, but when it comes to Islam, the country’s official religion, only the Sunni sect is permitted. Other forms, including Shiite Islam, are considered deviant and are not allowed to be spread. There are no official figures on the number of Shiites in Malaysia, but Shiite leaders estimate that there could be as many as 40,000, many of whom practice their faith secretly. [Source: New York Times]

Unlike some Muslim countries, Islam and modernity seem compatible and exist side and side. Malaysia “combines traditional principals of justice with more modern secular forms of government and society.” It has was the personal mission of Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad to bring Malaysia into the modern world while keeping its religious values.

History of Islam in Malaysia

Muslim girls in Malaysia

Before Islam spread to what is now Malaysia, the region's culture was heavily influenced by Hindu-Buddhist traditions. Some scholars argue that Islam entered Malaysia via India, while others claim that it was introduced by traders who came by land from China. Whatever its source, by the beginning of the fourteenth century, Islam had reached the Malay Peninsula and the neighbouring Indonesian archipelago. [Source: Ahmad Yousif, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

The Sultanate of Malacca, which controlled shipping through the Strait of Malacca with its strategic port in the fifteenth century, was a key factor in the spread of Islam throughout Malaysia and beyond. Parameswara, who ruled Malacca from around 1400 until his death in 1424, converted to Islam when he married a Muslim princess, taking the name Iskandar Shah. Other members of the Malay elite and merchant class followed his example by marrying exclusively within the Muslim community, and this practice eventually spread among rural Malay farmers and traders who visited Malacca.

In 1511, the Portuguese conquered the Malaccan sultanate. In 1641, the Dutch took over Malacca, which they then conceded to the British in 1824. Through treaties, relentless political pressure and diplomacy, the British slowly extended their control over all the states of the Malay Peninsula. Islamic practices, including worship and the establishment of religious institutions, remained unaffected by British colonial expansion.

The Japanese occupied the Malay Peninsula from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. Following the war, a number of Islamically oriented Malay nationalist movements and political parties were established in an effort to liberate the region from foreign control. The Federation of Malaya, which included all the former British territories on the peninsula except Singapore, gained independence in 1957. In 1963, the Bornean states of Sarawak and Sabah joined the Federation of Malaya to form Malaysia.

Islam Arrives in Malaysia

Islam came to the Malay Archipelago via Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century, and over time ended the age of Hinduism and Buddhism. It arrived in the region gradually, and became the religion of the elite before it spread to the commoners. The Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions and was originally not orthodox. Islam was introduced to Malaysia by Arab, Persian and Indian traders who controlled trade on the Strait of Malacca. For the most part the process was peaceful; The people who brought Islam were traders first and missionaries second. Most were Sunnis. Shiites came later. Hinduism and Buddhism were already well rooted in Southeast Asia at the time.

A replica of the Terengganu Inscription Stone at the National Historical Museum in Kuala Lumpur; the Terengganu Inscription Stone is a granite stele carrying Classical Malay inscription in Jawi script that was found in Terengganu, Malaysia; The inscription, dates to as early as 1303 to 1387 and is considered the earliest evidence of Jawi writing in the Malay world of Southeast Asia, and one of the oldest testimonies of Islam as a state religion in the region; It contains the proclamation issued by a ruler of Terengganu known as Seri Paduka Tuan, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance

According to The Economist: “It is not clear when Islam came to South-East Asia, and whether Arabs, Persians or Indians were its main disseminators. But there is no doubt that it was spread for the most part by merchants, rather than the warriors who brought it to the Middle East and North Africa. Local people seem to have converted gradually, while preserving many of their pre-Islamic beliefs. For a long time, Muslims remained a minority, and had to learn to rub along with people of other faiths. Hindu kingdoms endured in Java until the 16th century, for example, while Spanish colonisers and Muslim preachers seem to have arrived in the Philippines only a few decades apart. “What is more, the merchant missionaries themselves seem to have followed a fairly unorthodox brand of Islam. They introduced Sufism, a form of mysticism frowned upon by dogmatic Muslims. And although almost all South-East Asian Muslims follow the Sunni sect, Shia holidays have entered the local tradition. To this day, even the Acehnese, popularly considered the region's most devout Muslims, celebrate Ashura, an exclusively Shia festival in the rest of the Islamic world. [Source: The Economist , May 29, 2003]

Prof. Dr. Nazeer Ahmed, PhD wrote in the Encyclopedia of Islamic History: Around the year 1390, a prince from Java, Parameswara, was forced to flee his homeland. Landing on the west coast of Malaya with a loyal following of about a thousand young men, the prince lived off piracy for almost ten years. At that time, Siam (modern Thailand) was the imperial power in the area. Parameswara drove out the Siamese and established the town of Malacca in 1403. The name Malacca derives from the Arabic word Malakut-meaning market place. The Arabs had maintained a trading colony there since the 8th century.

“Once settled, the prince encouraged peaceful trade. The fame and fortune of the trading post grew until it attracted international attention. The Muslims dominated the trade in the Indian Ocean. Arabic had become the lingua franca of traders in this region. Islam was gaining a following in the islands of Indonesia. Across the Straits from Malacca, the powerful Muslim kingdom of Acheh was emerging. Local folklore has it that around the year 1405, Prince Parameswara fell in love with a princess from the court of Pasai, accepted Islam, married her and changed his name to Sultan Iskander Shah.

Thus it was love that brought Islam to Malaya. The bride brought with her good fortune for Malacca. The following year, the Emperor of China, Chu Tin (1403-24) sent a delegation under admiral Yin Ching, offering trade and friendship. The offer was gladly accepted as the Sultan was under increasing military pressure from the Siamese to the north. More courtly transactions followed. In 1409, the great Chinese admiral Zheng Yi (commonly known as Admiral Ho) visited Malacca at the head of a large flotilla of great ships. Admiral Zheng Yi was the greatest seaman of the 15th century. He was a Muslim. The Emperor of China, realizing the importance of Islam in the Indian Ocean region, had appointed him as Admiral of the great voyage. Zheng Yi continued with his flotilla to Acheh, Sri Lanka, Calicut, Bijapur, Hormuz, Aden, Jeddah, Zanj (East Africa), Zanzibar, Shofala and then southwards, crossing what is today the Cape of Good Hope to the west coast of Africa. Admiral Zheng Yi brought an invitation for Sultan Iskander Shah to visit Peking.

In 1411 Sultan Iskander Shah visited China, was warmly received and was given presents of silk, gems, horses, gold and silver. Malacca also received a “most favored nation status” from China and entered into mutual defense agreements to ward off further Thai encroachments into the Malay Peninsula. Upon his return, Sultan Iskander Shah ruled as a benevolent monarch. He invited Muslim scholars from as far away as Mecca, honored them and encouraged the spread of Islam. Malacca became not only the hub of international trade but also a center for Islamic learning and a rich prize that was to be fought over in succeeding centuries by emerging European Empires. Sultan Iskander Shah died in 1424. His grave is not to be found because the Portuguese, when they captured Malacca in 1510, they dug up the graves of all of the Sultans of Malaya and destroyed the tombstones. But the legacy of Sultan Iskander Shah lives. He was a prince who brought Islam to Malaya for the love of a beautiful princess.”

Major Islamic Leaders and Theologians in Malaysia

Percentage population that are Muslims in Malaysia by district, 2020

Many Muslims led Malaysia's struggle against the British colonisers. In 1914, Muhammad Hassan — also known as Tok Janggut — established an Islamic state in the northern state of Kelantan, before being killed by British forces the following year. In the neighbouring state of Terengganu, the Muslim scholar and politician Hj Abdul Rahman bin Abdul Hamid revolted against the British Protective Agreement in 1928. [Source: Ahmad Yousif, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

In 1951, Hj Ahmad Fuad bin Hassan became the first president and spiritual leader of Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS), which is now a powerful Islamic political party. Tuan Guru Dato Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat (born 1932), PAS's supreme advisor and Kelantan's chief minister, and Dato Seri Tuan Guru Haji Abdul Hadi Awang (born 1946), PAS's president and Terengganu's chief minister, are considered the most significant contemporary Islamic political figures in Malaysia.

Much of the contemporary literature on Islam in Malaysia has been written in Bahasa Melayu (the Malay language) by Muslim authors such as Sheikh Daud bin Abdullah bin Idris al-Fatani (18th and 19th centuries), Sayyid Alawi bin Tahir al-Haddad (1855–1907) and Mahayudin bin Haji Yahya (born 1942). Notable English-language writers include Muhammad Kamal Hassan, rector of the International Islamic University Malaysia since 1999 and an authority on Islam in Southeast Asia, and Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, founder of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation and author of works on Islamisation theory, Islamic history and civilisation, Sufism, and Islamic intellectual institutions in Malaysia.

Muslim Organizations and Political Groups in Malaysia

Muslim propagation activities, or dawah, are undertaken by both the government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). In Malaysia, some of the NGOs involved in Islamic propagation or working with new converts include Persatuan Darul Fitrah, Persatuan Al-Hunaffa, Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM), Jemaah Islam Malaysia (JIM), the Malaysian Chinese Muslim Association (MACMA), Belia Perkim and Persatuan Ulama Malaysia (PUM). While the growth of small ethnic Chinese and other ethnically-based Muslim communities in Malaysia has been driven by religious propagation via modern media, including the internet, in Malay, English, Tamil, Mandarin and Arabic, the majority of converts to Islam are the result of intermarriage between Muslim Malays and people of other faiths. In addition to Malay, Chinese and indigenous Muslims, there are also Muslims in Malaysia who trace their roots to India. [Source: Ahmad Yousif, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

The first Muslim political party, the Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS; Islamic Party of Malaysia), was established in Malaysia in 1948 by Abu Bakar al-Bakir, as the country began to move towards independence. Three years later, the Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS, or Islamic Party of Malaysia) was formed by Ahmad Fuad bin Hassan. Today, PAS is the country's main opposition party.

Malaysia is not an Islamic state, although Islam is the nation's official religion. Nevertheless, many Muslims in Malaysia believe that freedom of religion includes the right to establish Islamic legal and economic systems, as well as an Islamic state. Concerns that Malaysia might become an Islamic state grew in 1999 when PAS formed governments in the states of Kelantan and Terengganu on the north-east coast of Malaysia. The federal government has demonstrated its commitment to its own interpretation of moderate Islam, as well as to preserving the current power structure, by taking a tough stance against alleged Islamic militants, detaining suspects without trial in some cases under the Internal Security Act.

Ajaran Sesat

There are also a number of Islamic deviationist groups called ajaran sesat, which are often found among mystic communities. Ajaran sesat (Malay for “deviant teaching”) refers to beliefs, doctrines, or practices presented as Islamic but considered to contradict the Quran, the Sunnah, and accepted Sunni Islamic teachings (Ahli Sunnah wal Jamaah). The term is used by religious authorities in Malaysia to describe groups or movements that diverge from established interpretations of Islam.

Such teachings are typically identified by several characteristics. These may include reinterpretations or rejection of core religious texts, the introduction of new or unauthorized rituals, and the elevation of a leader to a position of excessive authority. In some cases, followers are encouraged to show unquestioning loyalty to a teacher or group, sometimes placing that authority above recognized religious scholars.

Other features associated with ajaran sesat include the creation of alternative religious practices, such as modified forms of prayer or purification, as well as teachings that may conflict with accepted moral or social norms. Some groups have also been described as promoting exclusivity by labeling those outside the movement as unbelievers.

Related terms in Malay include ajaran menyeleweng (misleading teachings) and ajaran salah (incorrect teachings). In English, such movements are sometimes described as “cults,” though usage varies depending on context. These groups may initially appear to follow mainstream Islamic practices but are considered by authorities to deviate over time.

Some of these groups are not tolerated. In July 2005, officials destroyed a commune, arresting members of the Sky Kingdom cult which preached a synthesis of all religions and had a giant two-storey teapot on its premises. The government said the cult practised a ''deviant'' form of Islam. [Source: Sebastian Tong, Reuters, June 25, 2006]

Malaysian Shiites

There are no official figures on the number of Shiites in Malaysia, but Shiite leaders estimate that there could be as many as 40,000, many of whom practice their faith secretly. According to to AFP, “Like other Muslims they read the Koran and face Mecca to pray, but the Shiite community in Malaysia is considered a "deviant sect" and faces harassment in this multicultural country.

Liz Gooch wrote in the New York Times, “Like most Muslims in Malaysia, Mohammad Shah was raised according to the Sunni school of Islam. But when he was about 30, he said, he came to believe that Sunni teachings did not answer all of his questions about Islam. He began reading about the Shiite school of thought, the world’s second largest Islamic sect, and decided that “Sunni was not right for me.” “I consider myself the new generation of Malaysian Shia,” said Mr. Mohammad, 33, using another term to describe Shiites. “My father is Sunni, my mother is Sunni. They are aware that I’m practicing a different school of thought. It’s no problem at all.” [Source: Liz Gooch, New York Times, January 27, 2011]

Islam Hadhari

Former prime minister of Malaysia and religious scholar , Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, promoted his vision of Islam—Islam Hadhari—as a model for development in Malaysia. Mohamed Sharif Bashir of the Islamic University of Malaysia wrote: “According to Badawi, Islam Hadhari, or civilizational and comprehensive Islam, is not an inclusive concept as it also emphasizes the importance of progress—with an Islamic perspective—in the economic, social, and political fields. Islam Hadhari emphasizes the need for balanced development, which covers both physical and spiritual development. Hence, Badawi proposes a holistic development approach for Malaysia. This means a shift in development approach from a “secular paradigm” to a “tawheed paradigm,” which emphasizes developing a thinking society, social harmony, and economic progress. [Source: Mohamed Sharif Bashir, PhD, Islamic University of Malaysia (KUIM), Kuala Lumpur, March 3, 2005, islamonline.net]

“Badawi mentioned that Islam Hadhari is not a new religion. It is not a new teaching, nor is it a new madhhab (school of jurisprudence). Islam Hadhari is an effort to bring the Ummah back to basics, back to the fundamentals, as prescribed in the Qur’an and the Hadith, that form the foundation of Islamic civilization. If Islam Hadhari is interpreted sincerely and understood clearly, it will not cause Muslims to deviate from the true path.

“Badawi explains that Islam Hadhari is merely an approach to foster an Islamic civilization built upon the noble values and ideals of Islam. It places substance over form. It is practical and pragmatic. It emphasizes development that is consistent with the tenets of Islam and that focuses on enhancing the quality of life for every citizen, regardless of his or her religion. This approach is also inspired by the Malaysian Muslims’ firm belief that the tide of radicalism and extremism can be checked and reversed with good governance, healthy democratic practices, and employment of the citizenry through education, as well as equitable sharing of the benefits of economic growth.

“Islam Hadhari, as introduced by Badawi, aims to achieve ten main principles, which Muslim nations and communities must demonstrate, namely: 1) Faith and piety in Allah; 2) A just and trustworthy government; 3) A free and independent people; 4) Mastery of knowledge; 5) Balanced and comprehensive economic development; 6) A good quality of life; 7) Protection of the rights of minority groups and women; 8) Cultural and moral integrity; 9) Protection of the environment; 10) Strong defenses.

“These principles have been formulated to ensure that the implementation and approach does not cause anxiety among any group in this multiracial and multi-religious country. These principles have been devised to empower Muslims to face the global challenges of today. Islam Hadhari is complete and comprehensive, with an emphasis on the development of an economy and civilization capable of building the Muslim Ummah’s competitiveness. For a society to prosper, the glorious heritage of Islamic civilization in all its aspects must be used as a reference, and should be the source of inspiration.Badawi encourages and guides the Muslim community to work hard towards not only regaining the glory of Islamic civilization but also move forward and share the emerging economic prosperity and face the challenges of the 21st century. With this, he believes that the goal of developing a Malaysian society of excellence, glory, and distinction can be achieved.

Datuk Prof. Dr. Abdullah Md. Zin, minister of religious affairs, says, “Wasatiyah, or a balanced life, would be a more precise way to describe Islam Hadhari. Moderation, on the other hand, could imply caution to the point of neglecting traditions. Islamic scholars tend to shy away from using the word ‘moderate’ because it can be manipulated and exploited by external influences. In the same way, scholars are cautious about the word ‘modern,’ which they associate with Western civilization. The word ‘progressive’ could also be used to define Islam Hadhari but wasatiyah is preferable.”

“The main objectives that Islam Hadhari is trying to achieve in Malaysia can be summed up in the following eight points: 1) Restoring moderation and embracing the mainstream, which will help strengthen both the people and the state. 2) Valuing good character, which should be central to the society in order to help it become a role model for both the Ummah and humanity as a whole. 3) Adopting seriousness and accountability in dealing with society’s main undertakings. 4) Building all social relations upon trust and good morals. 5) Respecting law and order. 6) Cherishing unity, cooperation, and solidarity. 7) Implementing genuine Islamic teachings and realizing the objectives of the Shariah 8. Empowering the state to be in a leading position, not feeble and weak-willed.

“The main characteristics of Islam Hadhari are as follows: 1) Universality: It is based on Islam, a universal message for mankind that is based on mercy. 2) Godliness: It is based on divine scripture and works on bringing people closer to their Lord. Hence, it is a godly end and means, and has a divine source and reference. Morality: Its ultimate concern is maintaining a good character and good human relations. Tolerance: Tolerance is essential to create a society based on peace, stability, unity, cooperation, and solidarity among all it segments and with all its different traditions and beliefs. This kind of tolerance is based on trying to genuinely understand the Other and respect cultural and religious convictions.

These are the characteristic features of Islam Hadhari that distinguish it from all the other relevant perspectives: 1) Comprehensiveness: It integrates both scripture-based sciences and modern sciences. Another feature is its all encompassing program to deal with the individual, society, and the state. 2) Moderation: This is the main methodology for the perspective, which is based on gradualism and easiness in implementation. Through this implementation, there will be a balance between the interests of all—the individual and the society, spiritual and worldly needs, and ideals and reality. 3) Diversity: The context of Islam Hadhari is wide ranging; it covers a wide range of interests on different levels; it is open to new adjustments and to other human experiments and experiences. 4) Humanity: As a call, Islam Hadhari is focused upon people.

Difference Between Islam Hadhari and Political Islam

Prof. Zin states that Islam Hadhari works from the bottom up, from the villages, and in a systematic way. Political Islam, which is practiced by some Islamic parties, works the opposite way, from up to down. Often it leads nowhere. This was how Ayatollah Khomeini ruled, and where did it take his country? [Source: Mohamed Sharif Bashir, PhD, Islamic University of Malaysia (KUIM), Kuala Lumpur, March, 03, 2005; islamonline.net ]

According to the writings of the Malaysian scholars, Islam Hadhari will focus on improving the quality of life, focusing on four areas as follows: 1) Knowledge: Islam demands a fully literate tradition. More knowledge automatically forces moral responsibility upon a man. “Fear of God is the beginning of wisdom.” 2) Balanced development: Avoiding extravagance in any area—including religion. 3) Wealth (pillar of livelihood): Encouraging earning an honest living to accumulate wealth. 4) Health care: Disability and sickness are not qadar (destiny) and striving to overcome these is on God’s shown path. Avoid decadence—drugs and other activities that destroy health.

In the early period of Islam, Muslims followed closely the examples of the Prophet in leadership and in the acquisition of wealth and knowledge, while still performing the compulsory ibadah (acts of worship). It is clear that the Islam Hadhari concept contributes towards overall human progress that is balanced between spiritual and material, between progress and moral values, between religion and worldly concerns.

It is important for the Muslim Ummah to be guided in understanding and practicing Islam as a comprehensive way of life, as a means to build a civilization. A wholesome way of life will create the balance between a person’s responsibilities in this world and in the Hereafter. Islam is not merely a ritual, because ritualism is meant solely for the Hereafter. The government of Malaysia has never practiced secularism, which rejects the Hereafter and focuses solely on worldly matters. Islam must be lived as a system that integrates the worldly life with preparations for the Day of Judgment.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings; 1993; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; Smithsonian magazine; Encyclopedia.com; National Geographic; Live Science; Malaysia Tourism websites; Malaysia government websites; UNESCO; Metropolitan Museum of Art; Natural History magazine; Times of London; Library of Congress; The Conversation; The New Yorker; Time; BBC; CNN; Reuters; Associated Press; AFP; Lonely Planet Guides; Google AI; Wikipedia; The Guardian and various websites; books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026