RELIGIOUS TENSIONS IN MALAYSIA: POLITICS, DISCRIMINATION, ISSUES, VIOLENCE

RELIGION, GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN MALAYSIA

Discrimination faced by respondents based on their identities. (Source: AOD)

The month of Ramadan and other Muslim practices are the focus of national attention in Malaysia. In contrast, non-Muslim religious practices and holidays have a smaller public presence in Malaysia. This is partly due to the smaller number of non-Muslims in the country and partly due to public policy, which limits the construction of churches and temples and the broadcasting of non-Muslim religious services. [Source: Thomas Williamson, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001]

Religion can be a contentious political matter in Malaysia. Ian Buruma wrote in The New Yorker, “How to reconcile the Islamists and the secularists? Anwar prefers to finesse the problem, by “concentrating on what we have in common, not what divides us.” But PAS has stated its desire to introduce hudud laws for Muslim citizens “” punishing criminal offenses with stoning, whipping, and amputation. Secularist partners in a federal government would find that hard to accept. “Any party should be free to articulate its ideas,” Anwar says. “But no issue should be forced on non-Muslims. When I argue with Muslims, I cannot sound detached from rural Malays, like a typical Malay liberal, or sound like Kemal Ataurk. I would not reject Islamic law out of hand. But without the consent of the majority there is no way you can implement Islamic law as national law.” [Source: Ian Buruma, The New Yorker, May 19, 2009]

According to Human Rights Watch: Malaysia’s constitution affirms the country is a secular state that protects religious freedom for all, but treatment of religious minorities continues to raise concerns. On August 3, 2011, Selangor state religious authorities raided a Methodist church where an annual charity dinner was being held. The authorities alleged that there had been unlawful proselytization of the Muslims present at the event but presented no evidence to support their allegations. Nazri Aziz, de facto law minister, said that since Islam allows underage marriage, the government “can’t legislate against it.” [Source: Human Rights Watch, World Report 2012: Malaysia]

Religious Pressure and Discrimination in Malaysia

Malaysia was rated as having "very high" government restrictions on religion in a 2009 survey by the Pew Forum, bracketing it with the likes of Iran and Egypt and it was the 9th most restrictive of 198 countries. Minorities say it is almost impossible to get permission to build new churches and temples. Some Hindu temples and Christian churches have been demolished in the past. Court verdicts in religious disputes usually favour Muslims.

Baradan Kuppusamy of Time wrote: Because of Malaysia's ethnic makeup, religion is a sensitive issue, and any religious controversy is seen as a potential spark for unrest. Some 60 percent of Malaysia's people are Malay Muslim, while the rest are mainly ethnic Chinese, Indians or members of indigenous tribes, practicing various faiths including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism and animism. Among Christians, the majority Catholics number about 650,000, or 3 percent of the population. Despite Malaysia's diverse national complexion, political Islam is a growing force, and the country operates under two sets of laws, one for Muslims, the other for everyone else. The authorities regard such compartmentalization as essential to maintaining social stability. [Source: Baradan Kuppusamy, Time, January 8, 2010]

In April 2015, about 50 Muslim protesters gathered outside a small church in a suburb of Kuala Lumpur , arguing that the cross was offensive to the local Muslim community. The cross was removed within hours, and no violence was reported. The incident drew criticism from various groups, both non-Muslims and Muslims, who saw it as a sign of increasing religious intolerance. A coalition of former senior civil servants and diplomats, known as the G25, called on authorities to take action against the protesters, warning that inaction could encourage extremism. [Source: AFP, April 21, 2015]

Hindus say it is almost impossible to get permission to build new temples. Some Hindu temples have been demolished in the past. In December 2007, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom condemned Malaysian government actions against the country’s ethnic Indian Hindus, including the use of tear gas and water cannons against peaceful demonstrators, beatings of protesters who sought refuge in a temple and the demolition of Hindu temples and shrines. The commission said the expanding reach of Sharia, or Islamic, courts is “threatening secular Malaysia’s civil courts and the country’s commitment to religious pluralism.”

Rise of Islam Rankles Malaysia's Minority Faiths

Non-Muslims worry about how they would fit in a Muslim state. Liau Y-Sing of Reuters wrote: “In a country where race and religion are inextricably linked, rising religious tension also throws the spotlight on the privileges of the majority ethnic Malays, who are Muslims by birth. Mosques are found in every nook and cranny in Malaysia but religious minorities say it is difficult to obtain approval to build their own places of worship. Non-Muslims have also complained, mainly in Internet chatrooms, about city hall officials permitting construction of huge mosques in areas with small Muslim populations. State television routinely broadcasts Islamic programs but forbids other religions to be preached. [Source: Liau Y-Sing, Reuters, July 9, 2007 ]

“The smoldering discontent is a worry for this multi-ethnic country which has tried hard to maintain racial harmony after bloody racial riots in 1969 in which 200 people were killed. "If the authorities do not intervene it would indirectly encourage extreme Islamists to show their muscle and their aggression towards other religious practices," said Wong Kim Kong, of the National Evangelical Christian Fellowship Malaysia. "That would threaten the religious harmony, national unity and national integration of the nation."

"Many people of other faiths in Malaysia view the gradual erosion of their rights," said Reverend Hermen Shastri, an official at Malaysia's Council of Churches. "The government, which asserts to be a coalition that looks to the interests of all Malaysians, is not firm enough with authorities who ... take actions arbitrarily," he added. Racial and religious relations have long been a thorny point in this melting pot of Malays, Chinese and Indians.”

“After taking power in October 2003, Prime Minister Abdullah espoused "Islam Hadhari", or "civilisational Islam", whose focus includes faith and piety in Allah and mastery of knowledge, with the aim of promoting tolerance and understanding. "Malaysia is one of the Muslim countries that practices moderation in all spheres," said Abdullah Md Zin, a minister for religious affairs. Some blame a small group of Muslim extremists for attempting to hijack the debate. "There are enough fair-minded Malaysians in the country who are standing together to hinder the hardliners from dominating the discourse about Islam and the relationship between state and religion," said Shastri, from the Malaysian Council of Churches.”

Churches Torn Down in Kelantan

In 2007 in a rural area of Malaysia, a Christian preacher continued to hold gatherings after local authorities demolished a small brick church used by his congregation. The incident was one of several demolitions of non-Muslim places of worship reported in the country, contributing to concern among minority religious communities about the protection of their rights, despite constitutional guarantees of freedom of religion. Preacher Sazali Pengsang questioned the action, asking why the church had been removed if individuals were free to practice their faith. He said the demolition would not deter him from continuing religious activities. The congregation included members of an indigenous community who had converted to Christianity from traditional beliefs. [Source: Liau Y-Sing, Reuters, July 9, 2007 ]

The church, located in Kelantan state near the Thailand border, was among a number of non-Muslim religious structures removed by authorities. State officials maintained that the building had been constructed without proper approval. Local residents, however, argued that the land belonged to them and that no permit was required under Malaysian law to build a place of worship on privately owned property.

Tensions over religious practices and regulations have a longer history in Malaysia. In the early 1980s, proposed government measures to restrict the establishment of non-Muslim places of worship led to the formation of the Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism and Taoism to represent minority faiths. In a separate case, Chong Kah Kiat, a state-level politician, reportedly resigned after authorities declined to approve his proposal to build a Buddhist statue near a mosque.

There have also been earlier disputes involving church demolitions. In 2004, federal authorities intervened after state officials in Pahang demolished a church, according to Moses Soo, who had established it. Following appeals to the prime minister, compensation of about $12,000 was granted along with permission to rebuild. A similar appeal was made in the Kelantan case, but the political context differed, as Kelantan was governed by the opposition Parti Islam se-Malaysia (PAS), which has advocated for the implementation of Islamic law at the national level.

Racial Tensions in Malaysia Rise Over the Use of the Word “Allah by Christians

In 2009 and 2010, religious and ethnic tensions in Malaysia increased as a result of a legal dispute over the use of the word “Allah” by a Catholic publication. The Herald, a newspaper published by the Roman Catholic Church, sought the right to use the term in its Malay-language edition, arguing that “Allah” is an Arabic word for God that predates Islam and is used by Christians in other Muslim-majority countries, including Egypt, Indonesia, and Syria. [Source: AP, January 28, 2010; Royce Cheah, Reuters, December 31, 2009; [Source: Baradan Kuppusamy, Time, January 8, 2010]

In December 2009, the High Court ruled in favor of the Herald, overturning a government ban imposed in 2007 that prohibited non-Muslim publications from using the word. Judge Lau Bee Lan stated that, although Islam is the federal religion, this did not give authorities the power to restrict such usage, and that the ban violated constitutional protections for freedom of religion and expression. The government subsequently appealed the ruling.

The case was initiated after the Home Ministry barred the Herald from using “Allah” in its Malay-language edition. In response, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Kuala Lumpur, Murphy Pakiam, filed for judicial review in 2008, arguing that the prohibition was unlawful and that the term was not exclusive to Islam. Church representatives maintained that Malay-speaking Christians, particularly in the states of Sabah and Sarawak, had long used “Allah” in religious practice and Bible translations. The Herald, published in English, Mandarin, Tamil, and Malay since 1980, circulated widely among these communities.

Government lawyers argued that “Allah” is understood globally as referring specifically to the Islamic concept of God and that allowing its use by Christians could create confusion among Muslims. They also contended that the Malay word “Tuhan” should be used instead in non-Muslim contexts. The court rejected these arguments, affirming that constitutional guarantees permitted the Herald to continue using the term. The ruling prompted a series of attacks on religious sites. In early 2010, at least eight churches and two small Islamic prayer halls were firebombed in separate incidents across several states. Additional acts of vandalism included paint being thrown at churches, windows being broken, a mosque targeted with a thrown bottle, and a Sikh temple stoned, reportedly linked to the use of “Allah” in Sikh scriptures.

Public reaction to the court decision was divided. While some viewed it as an affirmation of minority rights, others, particularly among the Malay Muslim majority, opposed the ruling. Online campaigns protesting the use of “Allah” by non-Muslims drew significant support, with one social media group attracting more than 220,000 participants. The controversy reflected broader concerns among minority communities, including Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus, over religious rights, especially in the context of earlier disputes involving conversions, court rulings, and the demolition of some non-Muslim places of worship.

Anger by Malay Muslims Over Christians Using the Word 'Allah'

Public reaction among many Malaysian Muslims to the High Court ruling on the use of the word “Allah” was strongly negative. Some individuals expressed the view that the term is exclusively associated with Islam and should not be used by other religions. The December 2009 judgment by Judge Lau Bee Lan had determined that the word was not restricted to Muslims and allowed its use by the Catholic publication Herald, reversing a 2007 Home Ministry ban. Following protests, the court issued a stay order on January 7, 2010, the same day the government filed an appeal. [Source: Baradan Kuppusamy, Time, January 8, 2010]

Tensions escalated in the days after the ruling. In Kuala Lumpur, attackers on motorcycles threw firebombs at several churches, including the Metro Tabernacle Church in the Desa Melawati area, causing significant damage to part of the building. Police described the incidents as apparently uncoordinated. Political leaders from both the government and opposition, as well as Muslim religious figures, publicly condemned the attacks. At the same time, demonstrations took place at mosques across the country; these gatherings were largely peaceful, with participants expressing opposition to the court decision.

Opposition to the ruling was also voiced by religious leaders, politicians, and civil society groups. A coalition of 27 Muslim non-governmental organizations petitioned Malaysia’s nine Malay rulers, who serve as heads of Islam in their respective states, to intervene. Some government officials and lawmakers questioned the appropriateness of the judiciary in deciding what they viewed as a sensitive religious matter. Public campaigns against the ruling, including online initiatives, attracted significant support.

At the same time, non-Muslim communities expressed concern that the intensity of the backlash reflected broader trends affecting religious pluralism in Malaysia. Other incidents had already heightened sensitivities, including legal actions under Islamic law and protests over religious sites. In response to rising tensions, representatives from legal and civic groups called for dialogue between Muslim and Christian leaders to prevent further escalation and to seek a negotiated resolution.

Malaysian Churches and Mosques Attacked During the "Allah" Usage Uproar

In January 2010, a series of attacks on places of worship in Malaysia followed a High Court ruling that lifted a government ban on Christians using the word “Allah” to refer to God. The decision intensified religious tensions in the multiracial country, prompting public reactions from some Muslim groups. During Friday prayers at major mosques in Kuala Lumpur, including Kampung Bahru and the National Mosque, some worshippers carried banners and expressed opposition to the ruling. Demonstrations were held within mosque compounds in accordance with police restrictions on street protests and dispersed without violence. [Source: Associated Press, January 8, 2010]

Violence occurred shortly afterward. In the first incident, attackers on motorcycles threw a firebomb at the ground-floor office of the three-story Metro Tabernacle Church in Kuala Lumpur shortly after midnight, causing a fire that destroyed the lower level. The upper two floors, where worship services were held, were not damaged, and no injuries were reported. Within hours, two additional churches were targeted in separate incidents; one sustained minor damage, while the other was not significantly affected. Prime Minister Najib Razak condemned the attacks and stated that the government would take steps to prevent further incidents.

Over the course of January, a total of 11 churches, one Sikh temple, three mosques, and two Muslim prayer rooms were reported to have been attacked in various parts of the country, most involving firebombing or vandalism. The Malaysian government publicly criticized the violence, while some observers argued that rising political and religious tensions following the 2008 elections had contributed to a more polarized environment. International organizations, including the World Council of Churches, expressed concern and called for action to protect religious freedom. [Source: Agencies, January 16, 2010]

Subsequent incidents also targeted Muslim sites. About a week after the initial church attacks, a mosque in Sarawak was vandalized, with broken glass found near its exterior wall. Police investigated whether bottles had been thrown at the site and warned against actions that could inflame tensions. Later in January, more serious provocations were reported when severed pig heads were discovered at two mosques in the Kuala Lumpur area—Sri Sentosa Mosque and Taman Dato Harun Mosque. Mosque officials described the acts as deliberate attempts to incite conflict. Authorities condemned the incidents as threats to Malaysia’s long-standing intercommunal relations and urged the public to remain calm.[Source: AP, January 28, 2010]

Arrests Related to Malaysian Church and Islamic Prayer Room Attacks

Two weeks after the initial church attacks in January 2010, Malaysian police arrested eight men—aged 21 to 26, including two brothers and their uncle—in connection with the firebombing of the Metro Tabernacle Church in Kuala Lumpur. The first suspect, a 25-year-old despatch rider, was detained while seeking treatment for burn injuries, which led to the arrest of the others. All were held under Section 436 of the Penal Code, which carries a maximum sentence of 20 years in prison for arson-related offenses. Police stated there was no evidence linking them to other attacks. [Source: Bernama, January 20, 2010; [Source: AP, January 2010]

In subsequent investigations, additional suspects were charged in separate incidents. Four individuals, including a teenager, were charged in Perak for firebombing churches and a convent school; three pleaded not guilty, while the minor pleaded guilty. Authorities also charged others in connection with earlier attacks, including the initial church arson.

By early February 2010, three more teenagers were charged with attempting to set fire to Muslim prayer rooms in Johor. Altogether, 10 people were charged over attacks and vandalism involving 11 churches, a Sikh temple, three mosques, and two Muslim prayer rooms. Most faced potential prison terms of up to 20 years, while minors faced lesser penalties under juvenile law.

Malaysian Court Affirms the Right of Non-Muslims to Use 'Allah'

The court ruling in December 2009 that Christians could use the word Allah to refer to God was overturned by an appeals court in 2013 and that decision was upheld by the supreme court in 2014. [Source: Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press]

But in March 2021, a Malaysian High Court ruled that non-Muslims may use the word “Allah” to refer to God, overturning a decades-old government ban and declaring it unconstitutional. The decision followed a legal challenge stemming from the 2008 seizure of Christian materials containing the term. [Source: Associated Press, March 10, 2021]

The government had argued that restricting the word to Muslims was necessary to avoid confusion and prevent religious conversion, but Christian groups maintained that Malay-speaking Christians had long used “Allah” in worship and religious texts, particularly in Borneo. The ruling also applied to three other Arabic-derived terms previously restricted.

The decision appeared to conflict with a 2014 Federal Court ruling that had upheld the ban. It allows use of the terms in Christian materials under certain conditions, such as including a disclaimer and a cross symbol. Supporters described the judgment as affirming constitutional religious freedom for minorities in a country where Muslims make up about two-thirds of the population and Christians around 10 percent.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings; 1993; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; Smithsonian magazine; Encyclopedia.com; National Geographic; Live Science; Malaysia Tourism websites; Malaysia government websites; UNESCO; Metropolitan Museum of Art; Natural History magazine; Times of London; Library of Congress; The Conversation; The New Yorker; Time; BBC; CNN; Reuters; Associated Press; AFP; Lonely Planet Guides; Google AI; Wikipedia; The Guardian and various websites; books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026