WOMEN IN MALAYSIA: ISLAM, RIGHTS, HARSH LAWS, WORK

WOMEN IN MALAYSIA

20120510-Tudung 2_Malay_girls_in_baju_kurung.jpg
Malay girls, with the on the left wearing a tudung There are many educated women working outside the home in Malaysia. Women make up half the university students in Malaysia. A constitutional amendment was added in the early 2000s to outlaw gender discrimination. The amendment, which was passed by a majority in parliament, added the word “sex” to a list that prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, descent, and place of birth.

Percentage of the population that is female: 49.1 percent (compared to 50.5 percent in the United States, 53 percent in Estonia and 37.1 percent in Bahrain) [Source: CIA World Factbook]

According to UN Women and local data, Malaysia has a 0.707–0.709 overall gender equality score (roughly 70 percent toward parity). The gender equality score measures how closely a country, organization, or society approaches equal rights, opportunities, and outcomes for people regardless of gender. Typically, on a scale (often 1-100 or 0-1), a higher score indicates greater equality in areas like work, pay, education, health, and decision-making power. [Source: UN Women Data Hub]

While women excel in education, significant gaps exist in political empowerment (13.5 percent of parliamentary seats) and economic participation. Female labour force participation is around 56 percent, well below the 83.3 percent for men, with women bearing a higher burden of unpaid domestic work.

Gender Labor Divisions and Status in Malaysia

Indian women in the Cameron Highlands

Economic growth in Malaysia has changed gender roles in the workplace, while many traditional roles remain in the home. More women have entered paid employment, particularly in manufacturing, where large numbers work on factory assembly lines. Despite this shift, household responsibilities such as cooking and cleaning are still largely seen as women’s work. In higher-income families where both spouses are employed, domestic help is often hired. Much of this work is carried out by foreign female domestic workers, as Malaysian women increasingly pursue other job opportunities. [Source: Thomas Williamson, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001; P. Bala “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life,” Cengage Learning, 2009 *]

In general, men continue to hold more formal power than women in Malaysian society. This is reflected in areas such as legal authority over children, as well as in the fact that many top positions in politics, business, and religious institutions are dominated by men. At the same time, women have become more visible in public life and have achieved prominent roles in various fields. Many political parties include active women’s sections that provide pathways into leadership and public participation.

Although differences in opportunities still exist and can vary by ethnic group and social class, Malaysia does not have strict gender segregation in everyday life. Women participate widely in education, employment, and public activities, even as some traditional expectations about gender roles continue to shape family and household responsibilities.

Women and Islam in Malaysia

Some people suggest that Islam is at fault for the discrimination of women. But this is not born out in Bangladesh, Malaysia and Indonesia where women play a major role in their county's economies. The Malaysian government has taken active measures to improve women's rights and standing. For example, the Islamic family law has been revised to strengthen the inheritance rights of Muslim women and increase their access to divorce. Women are underrepresented in professional occupations except in teaching and nursing. In family and religious matters, Muslim women are subject to Islamic law, which permits polygamy. [Source: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007.]

In conservative areas, women are secluded in mosques and encouraged to remain in their homes with their children. Many men in conservative areas refuse to shake hands with women. In Terengganu women wear traditional headscarves and dresses but drive cars and run a number of businesses. In the segregated Islamic schools in Kelantan, girls outnumber boys.

In May 2005. Malaysian Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said at a ministerial meeting of Non-aligned Movement members on the advancement of women that many parts of the world have “used religion and cultural norms as a justification to perpetuate discrimination against women. It takes a great deal of moral courage and fortitude to be able to challenge long held and deeply ingrained societal beliefs about the role of women in society, particularly if religion is cited as the main reason for their subjugation."

Islamic Law and Women in Malaysia

Many men in conservative areas refuse to shake hands with women. In Kelantan couples caught sitting too close together on park benches have to be on the look out for moral police. If they are caught they are fined up to £285 in the city's Sharia courts. In 2003, a woman was fined $1,000 for sitting to close to a man she was not related to. Unrelated men and women caught riding together on a motorcycle have been arrested on similar “close proximity” charges. Unmarried couples caught having sex are often forced to marry.

Women in the state of Selangor are forbidden from entering beauty contests and participating in fashion shows because the clothes they wear are too revealing. According to a 1996 law, legal action will be taken against women who wear body-hugging dresses, bikinis, leotards, low-cut blouses, which show cleavages and high -slit skirts that expose a large part of the leg. Women who are convicted face a fine a $4000 or six months in jail or both.

In 1997, Noni Mohamad and two other contestants in the Miss Malaysia Petite beauty contest were arrested for indecent dressing for wearing leotards and swimsuit. The women were fined 400 ringiit ($145) and told if they didn't pay the fine they would be jailed for two months. The ruling is not clear on women athletes, swimmers and gymnasts. As to appear non-discriminatory, the law also states that men will be punished if they reveal their body between their knees and navel.

In March 2002, bikinis were banned in Terengganu and Kelantan, which have a number of beach resorts that are popular with European vacationers. Malaysian tourism officials complained the ban produced a noticeable drop off in the number of foreign visitors to Malaysia.

Terengganu Introduces Law That Punishs Women for Out-of-Wedlock Pregnancies and ‘Acting like Men’

In 2022, Malaysia’s Terengganu state has introduced new laws that impose penalties on Muslim women for out-of-wedlock pregnancies and for dressing or behaving in ways considered masculine. The measures were enacted by the state government, led by the Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS), as part of amendments to its religious regulations. [Source: Michelle De Pacina, NextShark, December 20, 2022]

Under the new provisions, women found in violation may face fines of up to 5,000 ringgit (about $1,130), prison sentences of up to three years, up to six lashes, or a combination of these punishments. The amendments also outlaw practices described as witchcraft or sorcery. State religious official Satiful Bahari Mamat said the laws were intended to protect “the well-being of Muslims,” noting that earlier rules had mainly addressed men dressing or behaving like women. He added, “Because in the past, there might not have been much of this issue… But we see now that ‘pengkid’ (tomboy or lesbian) cases and the like are becoming more widespread, so the state government intends to curb this issue.”

The legislation reflects the broader agenda of PAS, which promotes a more conservative interpretation of Islamic law and has called for stricter religious legislation at the national level. The party’s growing political influence has raised concerns about the direction of state and federal policies. Economic observers have also pointed to political uncertainty, noting that more than $1.2 billion was withdrawn from Malaysia’s domestic bond market in the first 11 months of the year amid such concerns.

The new laws have drawn criticism from civil society groups. Fourteen human rights organizations, including the All Women’s Action Society, argued that the measures restrict freedom of expression and undermine principles of equality and non-discrimination. In a joint statement, the groups said, “The laws can have harmful impact on women, young people, LGBTQ persons, among others.” Observers have also compared the move to recent legal changes in neighboring Indonesia, where new regulations criminalize sex and cohabitation outside marriage and impose broader restrictions on personal freedoms.

Malaysian Government Backs Islamic University on Headscarf for Non-Muslim Women

In October 2005, the Malaysian government backed an Islamic university’s move to encourage non-Muslim female students to cover their hair on campus. Associated Press reported: “Government lawmaker Maximus Ongkili, the minister in the Prime Minister’s Department in charge of national unity, said the headscarf was part of the International Islamic University’s uniform and not “religious in nature,” the Star newspaper reported. “It does not breach basic human rights,” he was quoted as saying. “We must respect the laws of the country, institutions and organizations to ensure there is no disturbance in the community.” [Source: AP, October 26, 2005 \=/]

“Ongkili was responding to opposition leader Lim Kit Siang, who said a student from the university had complained that she was forced to wear a headscarf to her graduation ceremony. Ongkili’s answer sparked an outcry among opposition lawmakers, who said the move could set a precedent for non-Muslim women being compelled to wear headscarves in other establishments, such as Parliament. \=/

“The International Islamic University’s dress code for women, which includes barring tight or revealing clothes and requiring them to cover their hair, has existed in its regulations since the school was opened in 1983, said university spokesman Shamsul Azahar. Although non-Muslim students are encouraged to cover their hair at all times, wearing a hijab- full headscarves worn traditionally by Muslim women - is not mandatory, except at graduation ceremonies. “Every university has its own system of conducting a convocation. Some require students to wear mortar boards,” Shamsul said. “Well, for IIU we have a system where our male students must wear a black songkok and females wear the (hijab),” he said. “During convocation this is compulsory.” \=/

Ongkili, who is in charge of national unity, said: “In a multi-racial country, each community must respect one another. But at the same time we must respect the laws of the country, institutions and organisations to ensure there is no disturbance to the community. As the rule was approved by the university senate, it is not religious in nature but a matter of uniforms that must be followed. It does not breach basic human rights. He was replying to Lim Kit Siang (DAP – Ipoh Timur), who read out an e-mail by a IIU undergraduate who said she was forced to wear the tudung to her convocation. Opposition MPs said they were worried that if this was allowed, they said non-Muslims might be made to wear the tudung elsewhere such as to Parliament House. [Source: The Star, October 26, 2005]

In November 2006, Malaysia ‘s foreign minister said that a Dutch on veils was discriminatory. AFP and Ynet reported: “Malaysia's Foreign Minister Syed Hamid Albar has criticized the Netherlands over a proposed government ban of face veils, saying it was discriminatory and violated the rights of Muslims. "This is again another imbalance treatment. Why can't people have the freedom to dress the way they want to dress. "People can go naked and wear scanty dresses and yet you do not condemn them. And when people want to cover themselves that is their right," he told reporters. [Source: AFP and Ynet, November 18, 2006]

Earlier, the Dutch cabinet said it was proposing a bill banning clothing that covers the face in public, targeting in particular Muslim woman wearing the burqa or niqab. The burqa is an Islamic veil covering the entire face and body and a mesh screen to see through, while the niqab is a veil covering the face but leaving the eye area clear. Rita Verdonk, minister of immigration and integration, said the bill proposed a ban on the basis that covering the face constituted a risk to public order and safety.

Travel-Restriction Proposal Angers Malaysian Women

In May 2008, Malaysian women's groups reacted with outrage to a government proposal to impose restrictions on women planning to travel overseas on their own. Reuters reported: Malaysia “is considering requiring women to obtain the written consent of their families or employers before being allowed to travel alone outside the country, state news agency Bernama said, quoting the foreign minister. "It is totally ridiculous and it's a totally regressive proposal with regards to women's right to movement," said Norhayati Kaprawi, spokeswoman for Sisters in Islam. The National Council for Women's Organisations called it unfair. "This is an infringement of our rights," council deputy president Faridah Khalid told New Sunday Times. [Source: Reuters, May 5, 2008 =|=]

“The foreign and home ministries came up with the idea in response to a string of cases where women travelling alone were used by international drug syndicates to smuggle drugs across borders, Bernama said, quoting Foreign Minister Rais Yatim. Bernama portrayed the proposal as an anti-crime measure rather than a religiously inspired idea and said it aimed to ensure that a woman's family would "monitor her departure and serve as a preventive measure against being duped". Rais was quoted as saying that the idea came out of a review of criminal cases involving Malaysians abroad. In 119 cases of Malaysian women being brought before foreign courts, about 90 percent were linked to drugs. "It will definitely not solve the problem," Norhayati countered, noting that many Malaysian men were also duped into smuggling drugs. =|=

Malaysia Canes Women for Adultery

In February 2010, three women were caned in Malaysia under Islamic law for committing adultery, the first such case in the country. Two of the women were whipped six times while the third received four strokes of the rotan (cane). Al-Jazeera reported: “Hishamuddin Tun Hussein, the Malaysian home affairs minister, said the sentences were carried out 9 after a sharia court found them guilty of extra-marital sex. "It was carried out perfectly," Hishamuddin said in a statement. "Even though the caning did not injure them [the women], they said it caused pain within them." He said one woman was released after the caning, another was freed a few days later while the third set free four months later. [Source: Al-Jazeera, February 18 2010 \\]

“The women, and four men, were caned following a decision in the religious courts, Hishamuddin said. His comments came as authorities were preparing to cane another Muslim woman, Kartika Sari Dewi Shukarno, who was arrested in 2009 for drinking beer and sentenced to six strokes of the cane. The case, when first reported, raised concerns that the nation's secular status is under threat, eroding the rights of some 40-45 percent of the country's ethnic minorities. ////

“Hishammuddin said Kartika's case had flagged concerns about how women should be flogged and that the recent canings demonstrated that the prisons department can carry out punishments in accordance with Islamic law. Under the sharia, the women have to be whipped in a seated position by a female prison guard and be fully clothed. "I hope this will not be misunderstood so much that it defiles the purity of Islam," Hishammuddin said, according to state media. "The punishment is to teach and give a chance to those who have fallen off the path to return and build a better life in future." ////

This caning was not carried out

“The caning, however, has raised new questions about whether a state religious court can sentence women to be caned when federal law precludes women from such a punishment, while men below 50 can be punished by caning. The case is expected to fuel a debate over rising "Islamisation" in Malaysia, where religious courts have been clamping down on moral offences, as well as a ban on Muslims consuming alcohol that had been rarely enforced. ////

“News of the women's caning sparked public outrage, with lawyers and rights groups blaming the government for allowing it. Ragunath Kesavan, president of the Malaysian Bar, said it was worrying that the punishment had gone ahead even as the caning issue was being hotly debated by Muslim scholars, religious groups and human rights activists. "The impression was that Kartika's case would be the first so I've got no idea what has happened," he said. "It's not as if this is the Middle East... it's not a good signal that they're [the government] sending out." "We are against any form of corporal punishment, for men or women," Kesavan said. "The fact is that any form of whipping is barbaric." Sisters in Islam, a local group of Muslim women activists, said the caning "constitutes further discrimination against Muslim women in Malaysia". ////

Women’s Rights in Malaysia

In Malaysia, men and women generally have equal access to education and professional careers. This has led to more women entering skilled occupations and holding senior positions in various fields. At the same time, some traditional practices continue, particularly among Malays. For example, in mosques, women typically sit separately from men and do not mix freely with them in that setting. Within the family, women are expected to show respect to their husbands and care for their children, although fathers are also actively involved in raising children. [Source: P. Bala “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life,” Cengage Learning, 2009; Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

The government has introduced measures to improve women’s rights and legal protections. Revisions to Islamic Family Law have strengthened inheritance rights for Muslim women and expanded their ability to seek divorce. Laws addressing domestic violence allow courts to issue protection orders for victims of abuse. However, critics have noted that earlier versions of these laws did not fully classify domestic violence as a criminal offense, leading to calls for further reform.

Despite these legal advances, differences in status between men and women remain. Women now make up more than half of university students, but they hold a smaller share of senior positions in the public sector, at around 15 percent. In some areas, customary practices still favor men, particularly in matters related to inheritance and authority within the household.

Working Women in Malaysia

A large percentage of Muslim women in Malaysia work in full-time jobs, in addition to maintaining their households. [Source: Ahmad Yousif, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

In some of the most Islamic and conservative states in Malaysia the local markets are dominated by women. A state official old the Yomiuri Shimbun, “In Kelaton, farming and fishing are men’s jobs, and processing and selling what the men produce and catch is women’s work. That is why women are so interested in business and good at selling.”

The world’s first female to fly an MiG fighter plane is Patricia Yapp from Sandakan, Sabah. Lee Mei Li of The Star wrote: Who says only men get the serious jobs? The passenger door slides open and 29-year-old Natasha Sallehudin warmly welcomes us on board. “Sorry girls. The van is not air-conditioned,” she says. Inside the van, the heat is suffocating but the passengers didn’t seem to mind. Then again, they are made of sterner stuff. Natasha is Malaysia Airlines (MAS)’ first female licensed aircraft mechanical engineer, while her colleague Hurul Ain Sabaruddin is the lead engineer of her team. [Source: Lee Mei Li, meili@thestar.com.my]

Hurul Ain Sabaruddin is the country’s first female licensed aircraft engineer. On a good day, the aircraft engineers remove and install aircraft components, conduct safety checks, troubleshoot and practically adjust the nuts and bolts. On a bad day, they have to do all that in record time. When Hurul pulls the van to a stop on the tarmac, we meet another female aircraft engineer garbed in a reflective vest and safety steel-toed shoes, 28-year-old Saandhi Sambad who has been fiddling with a Boeing 777.

Working on the tarmac is a constant challenge, especially when there’s only the aircraft’s underbelly to shield them from the scorching heat and torrential rain. “We are outdoors the whole day, working on up to four or five aircraft,” says Natasha, who is the only female in a team responsible for long transit aircraft defects. “But the toughest part is really getting everyone to accept that women are capable of becoming aircraft engineers too.”

Hurul, who works on shorter layover flights, remembers being the only female applicant during her job interview with MAS in 1995. “I wasn’t very hopeful at first. Plus my friends weren’t very encouraging either; they kept highlighting the fact that I was attempting to break into a man’s world,” she says. “So, I was really moved when MAS offered me the job. I just took it, but I wasn’t sure what lay ahead.”

To become a licensed aircraft engineer, one has to go through five years of training, which includes practical work, theoretical tests and oral exams. Hurul breezed through it all, though she admits to failing miserably when it comes to “hanging with the boys”. “They would all grow quiet whenever I was around. I felt uncomfortable at first but I slowly learnt to blend in,” she says. “I actually tried reading books like Men Are from Mars, Women Are From Venus just so I could understand them better.” As for Natasha, working in a male-dominated environment has taught her the wonders of being muka tebal, thick-skinned. “There are certain things that you just don’t say to your girlfriends, like ‘You’re fat!’ But the guys do and to them, it’s a joke. I think I’ve become less sensitive,” she says.

In 2007, Natasha received her engineering licence. “When I first started out, my lead engineer kept performing spot checks on my work but he left the male engineers alone. It’s like they were automatically trusted with the job.” However, she admits that the mechanical division is physically more demanding for women. “All the components that I have to remove are heavy. Men can just carry them with their hands but I have to use my whole body. People would come up to say ‘Are you sure you can do it?’ Well, I just took it as a challenge.”

All MAS licensed aircraft engineers have to work on 12-hour shifts, and at all hours. They work through the wee hours, and that means braving shady corners, eerie runways and well, encounters with things that go bump in the night. Are the girls spooked? “Of course! That’s why I’m always with another mechanic,” says Hurul. “I’ve heard a lot of ghost stories but I’ve never experienced any.”

But Natasha had had an eerie encounter. “KLIA is a huge place and there are long stretches of dark and deserted areas. Once, when I was driving alone through one of these areas, a Chinese song suddenly blared over the car’s radio, which had been broken for a long time. I couldn’t stop the car because I was in the middle of nowhere and I was worried that if I did, something else would happen. The moment I reached my office, the radio switched off by itself. I fell sick the next day,” she recalls with a laugh. “Most of the time I’m always with another junior technician. But when I have no choice but to work alone, I will never look back, even when I think I hear weird things. I’m always prepared to run.”

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings; 1993; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; Smithsonian magazine; Encyclopedia.com; National Geographic; Live Science; Malaysia Tourism websites; Malaysia government websites; UNESCO; Metropolitan Museum of Art; Natural History magazine; Times of London; Library of Congress; The Conversation; The New Yorker; Time; BBC; CNN; Reuters; Associated Press; AFP; Lonely Planet Guides; Google AI; Wikipedia; The Guardian and various websites; books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026