HOMES, TOWNS AND FOREST CITY, MALAYSIA

TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN MALAYSIA

Malay settlement in 1902

Malay settlement have traditionally been established at river mouths, on stretches of beach or along roads or highways. Towns typically sprung up where there administrative of commercial centers, many of the residents were immigrants brought in to perform labor. There are also plantation-style settlements. [Source: Manning Nash, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East / Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; Thomas Williamson, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001]

A Malay village, sometimes called a kampong, typically contains a "masjid" (mosque) or "surau" (Muslim chapel), paddy fields, orchards, gardens and Malay houses on stilts. Towns and cities are the product of immigrant populations and commercial and administrative activities, with a few cities combining the above with transport centers. Markets are held in the towns; produce flows in from the countryside via trishaw, boat, truck, bus, and train. Urbanization is rapidly increasing, and the cities are the fastest-growing type of settlement in Malaysia.

Since historical times, every Malay village came under the leadership of a penghulu (village chief), who has the power to hear civil matters in his village. Malay villagers practice the culture of helping one another as a community, which is better known as "joint bearing of burdens" (gotong royong), as well as being family-oriented — -especially the concept of respecting one's family, particularly the parents and elders—courtesy and believing in God ("Tuhan") as paramount to everything else.

It is common to see a cemetery near the mosque, as all Muslims in the Malay village want to be prayed for, and to receive Allah's blessings in the afterlife. In Sarawak and some villages are have traditional longhouses.

Kampongs

A kampong is traditional Malay water village, where many homes are built on poles over rivers and waterways. A traditional kampong consists of 20 or 30 thatch- or zinc-roofed wooden huts set on stilts around an estuary or river. The residents are typically fishermen or rice farmers. Many of the fishermen caught fish with traps and dried them. Houses were often set among orchard crops, with rice fields outside the village boundaries. Kampongs typically didn’t have any public buildings other than a small mosque.

Riverside kampong on road from Kuantan to Dungun 1964

In Malaysia, the term kampung (sometimes spelling kampong) in the English language has been defined specifically as "a Malay hamlet or village in a Malay-speaking country". In other words, a kampung is defined today as a village in Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. In Malaysia, a kampung is determined as a locality with 10,000 or fewer people. [Source: Wikipedia]

The term "kampong" is one of many Malay words to have entered common usage in Malaysia and Singapore. Locally, the term is frequently used to refer to either one's hometown or a rural village, depending on context. There are only a few kampong villages remaining in Singapore, mostly on islands surrounding Singapore such as Pulau Ubin. In the past, there were many kampung villages in Singapore but now there aren't many on the mainland.

The residents of Sabah's kampongs don't have to pay taxes because their housed are not built on land. Instead they are built on stilts over tidal flats. Some are shacks. Others are more elaborates dwelling with porches and gardens. Most have electricity and water but no plumbing. At low tide the muddy flats are exposed and they are filled with trash and not very attractive.

Homes in Malaysia

A typical Malaysian home has a tiled floor and louvered windows trimmed with heavy curtains. A typical window of a Malay house with slanted wooden panels that can be adjusted for ventilation. Most Malay houses are built as Rumah Panggung ("stage houses") on stilts. Traditional houses in northern Malaysia are adorned with distinctive carved panels.

Malay houses (Malay: Rumah Melayu) are traditional dwellings, originating before the arrival of foreign or modern influences, and constructed by the indigenous ethnic Malay of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. Traditional architectural forms, such as tropically-suited roofs and harmonious proportions with decorative elements are considered by traditionalists to still have relevance. [Source: Wikipedia]

House in Kampung Bilit, Sabah

Using renewable natural materials including timber and bamboo, the dwellings are often built without the use of metal including nails. Instead pre-cut holes and grooves are used to fit the timber elements into one another, effectively making it a ‘prefabricated house’. Although nails had been invented and in later houses used minimally for non-structural elements (for example, windows or panels), structural flexibility was a benefit which nailing inhibited. Without nails, a timber house could be dismantled and reconstructed in a new location. Most of the ancient Malay peoples of South-East Asia maintained a form of self-regenerating environmental culture.

Traditional timber houses incorporated design principals relevant in contemporary architecture such as shading and ventilation, qualities present in the basic house features. Although Malay houses have diversity of styles according to each states, provinces, and sub-ethnics, there are common style and similarities shared among them: 1) Built on stilts; 2) Have stairs; 3) Partitioned rooms; 4) Vernacular roof; 5) adorned with decorations

Traditional buildings require significant maintenance compared to modern construction. Problems that have to be dealt with: namely how to preserve wooden materials from the decaying effect of tropical weather as well as termite problems. These traditional skills are gradually being lost as Malaysia becomes more modernized.

Traditional Architecture in Malaysia

Traditional Malay architecture employs sophisticated architectural processes ideally suited to tropical conditions such as structures built on stilts, which allow cross-ventilating breeze beneath the dwelling to cool the house whilst mitigating the effects of the occasional flood. High-pitched roofs and large windows not only allow cross-ventilation but are also carved with intricate organic designs. Traditional houses in Negeri Sembilan were built of hardwood and entirely free of nails. They are built using beams, which are held together by wedges. A beautiful example of this type of architecture can be seen in the Old Palace of Seri Menanti in Negeri Sembilan, which was built around 1905. [Source: Malaysia Government Tourism]

Today, many Malay or Islamic buildings incorporate Moorish design elements as can be seen in the Islamic Arts Museum and a number of buildings in Putrajaya - the new administrative capital, and many mosques throughout the country. Moorish architecture hails from North Africa and Spain. Characteristic elements include muqarnas, horseshoe arches, voussoirs, domes, crenellated arches, lancet arches, ogee arches, courtyards, and decorative tile work.

In Malaysia, Chinese architecture is of two broad types: traditional and Baba-Nyonya. Examples of traditional architecture include Chinese temples found throughout the country such as the Cheng Hoon Teng that dates back to 1646. Many old houses especially those in Melaka and Penang are of Baba-Nyonya heritage, built with indoor courtyards and beautiful, colourful tiles.

Old house in Lebuh Leith, Penang,

With most of Malaysian Hindus originally from Southern India, local Hindu temples exhibit the colourful architecture of that region. Built in the late nineteenth century, the Sri Mahamariamman Temple in Kuala Lumpur is one of the most ornate and elaborate Hindu temples in the country. The detailed decorative scheme for the temple incorporates intricate carvings, gold embellishments, hand-painted motifs and exquisite tiles from Italy and Spain. The Sikhs, although a small minority, also have their temples of more staid design in many parts of the country.

Two unique architectural highlights of the indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak are longhouses and water villages. Homes to interior riverine tribes, longhouses are traditional community homes. These elongated and stilted structures, often built of axe-hewn timber, tied with creeper fibre and roofed with woven atap or thatched leaves, can house between 20 to 100 families. Rustic water villages built on stilts are also commonly found along riverbanks and seafronts. Houses are linked by plank walkways with boats anchored on the sides. Transport around the village is usually by sampan or canoe.

Malaysian Architecture and Climate

In their paper “Malaysian Architectural Identity,” Wan Sharizatul Suraya and Wan Mohd Rashdi wrote: “In hot and wet climate country, spaciousness and wind orientation are essential design considerations as these allow ventilation in designing a building, referring to Malaysian traditional house, long overhangs, large and many windows, screens, and high pitched roofs are elements resulting comfort and ease of the residents. [Source: Wan Sharizatul Suraya bt Wan Mohd Rashdi, Malaysian Architectural Identity, April 11, 2013]

“The basic concept demands that direct sunshine and heat be kept out, as much the rain. Roof are often steeply pitched to facilitate water drainage and to provide a large, ventilated roof space below which allows warm air to dissipate and the building to keep cool. Large overhangs prevent rain from entering, offer sun shading, and reduce unwanted glare.

The Salinger House has wide overhanging roof eaves to protect windows from sun and rain. Multi paneled, fenestration carvings or louvres are designed to encourage air movements, and gaps under the roof also allowing air to enter the house.

Parts of Traditional Malay House

The interior of a traditional Malay house are partitioned to create rooms such as serambi (verandah), living room, and bedrooms. A traditional Malay timber house usually in two parts: the main house called Rumah Ibu in honour of the mother (ibu) and the simpler Rumah Dapur or kitchen annex, which was separated from the main house for fire protection. Proportion was important to give the house a human scale. The Rumah Ibu was named after the spacings between stilts which are said to typically follow the arms-spread width of the wife and mother in the family of the house when being built. At least one raised veranda (serambi) is attached to the house for seated work or relaxation, or where non-familiar visitors would be entertained, thus preserving the privacy of the interior.

The roof of traditional Malay houses are designed to provides shades and protection from heat and rain, as well as to provides ventilation. The basic design of Malay roof is gabled roof, with somehow extended roof frame forming ornaments on the edge of the roof. The vernacular Malay roof is best suited for hot and humid tropical climate. The modern government and public buildings often based on Malay style roof design, such as government buildings in Riau and Jambi, as well as the roof design of Muzium Negara in Kuala Lumpur.

Each Malay region, state or sub-ethnic groups has its own regional or group style of house with preferred details. However most of Malay houses have a typical roof ornament, a crossed roof edge structure forming "x"-like pinnacle ornament on the edge of the roof. This kind of ornament can be found in Lontik, Lipat Kajang and Limas styles. In Peninsular Malaysia’s east coast, many houses have distinctive carved roof gable-end boards akin to those in Thailand and Cambodia.

Types: 1) Rumah Limas - Predominantly found in Palembang, Riau, Johor, Malacca, Pahang, Terengganu and Selangor; 2) Rumah Lipat Kajang or Rumah Kejang Lako - Predominantly found in Jambi and Riau; 3) Rumah Malacca - Predominantly found at Johor and Malacca; 4) Rumah Lancang or Rumah Lontik - Predominantly found in Riau Kampar Regency; 5) Rumah Belah Bubung - Predominantly found in Riau Islands; 6) Rumah Kutai - Predominantly found in Perak and northern Selangor, based from Kutai architecture; 7) Rumah Perabung Lima - Predominantly found in Kelantan and Terengganu; 8) Rumah Gajah Menyusu - Predominantly found in Penang; 9) Rumah Tiang Dua Belas - Predominantly found in Kelantan, Terengganu and Pattani; 10) Rumah Bumbung Panjang - Predominantly found in Kedah, Perlis, Perak, Selangor, Johor and Pahang; 11) Rumah Air - Predominantly found in Brunei and Labuan; 12) Rumah Berbumbung Lima - Predominantly found in Bengkulu.

A typical Malaysian home is furnished with cushioned chairs organized around the walls and an ornate display cabinet topped with family photos, kitschy art and silk flowers. Air conditioning has become popular in recent years. Malaysia make its own air conditioners. Even so many villages homes don’t have air conditioner. There are not even fans when the temperature is over a 90°.

Malaysia’s Transformation a Rural Country to an Urban One

In recent decades Malaysia has morphed from a largely agricultural country to an urban one. The urban population: is 78.7 percent of total population (2023) and the rate of urbanization is 1.87 percent annual rate of change (2020-25 estimate) Major urban areas — population: KUALA LUMPUR (capital): 8.622 million people; Johor Bahru: 1.086 million; Ipoh: 857,000 (2023). The urban population was 72 percent of total population in 2010 and the rate of urbanization: was 2.4 percent annual rate of change (2010-15 est.). [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2025]

In the 1920s around 90 percent of the population worked the land. Today the figure is only about 20 percent. From 1960 to 2000, the percentage of the population residing in urban areas increased from 25 to 62 percent. Most villages have electricity, telephones and televisions and are connected by paved roads. Many people living in rural areas migrate to urban areas because of low unemployment rates. [Source: Library of Congress, 2006]

Historically, the Chinese population dominated urban areas. However, in the 1970s, many Malays migrated from villages to cities, resulting in a more balanced ethnic composition of city residents. By 2000, slightly more than 62 per cent of Malaysia's population were living in urban areas, compared to 51 per cent in 1991 and 34 per cent in 1980. Meanwhile, the rural population decreased from 66 per cent of the total population in 1980 to 39 per cent in 2000. In both urban and rural areas, the kampung remains at the heart of Malay life. These are tightly knit communities, united by ties of kinship, marriage or neighbourliness, where consensus, compromise and traditional values reign supreme. [Source: P. Bala “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life,” Cengage Learning, 2009 *]

Malays in urban areas own consumer goods such as cars, televisions, computers, and refrigerators. They have access to good, economical and well-maintained public transport, such as express buses, trains and light rail. They also have access to higher standards of basic amenities, such as a water supply, sanitation and electricity, than those who live in villages. In contrast, some Malays in villages still rely on kerosene for lighting and wells or rivers for water. *

Up until recent decades almost 75 percent of the population of Sabah and Sarawak in Borneo in East Malaysia was rural. Many of the indigenous groups there traditionally practiced shifting cultivation; burning trees and grasses in an area to make room for planting crops. After several seasons of farming it, one area is left and a new area is burned.

Housing and Settlement Patterns in Malaysia

With nearly 80 percent of Malaysians now living in urban areas, demand for housing remains high, especially in major cities. In the early 2000s, more than 20 percent of Kuala Lumpur’s population was estimated to be living in squatter settlements, often in overcrowded conditions with limited access to basic services. In response, the government expanded public housing programs, building rental units to support low-income households unable to afford homeownership. By 2000, the country’s total housing stock was about 5.7 million units. Earlier development efforts had already added hundreds of thousands of homes, including 744,000 units built between 1970 and 1980 and over 923,000 units planned for 1981–85, with a mix of public and private sector participation. [Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Since then, Malaysia has continued to urbanize rapidly, with large-scale housing developments, high-rise apartments, and government-backed affordable housing schemes becoming more common. While living standards in cities have improved significantly, affordability and access remain ongoing challenges, particularly for lower-income groups in fast-growing urban centers.

Urban–rural divisions in Malaysia are closely tied to patterns of ethnic settlement. Historically, Malays have been more concentrated in rural and agricultural areas, while Chinese communities have dominated commerce and are more heavily represented in towns and cities, especially along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Indian communities were often brought in during the colonial period to work on rubber plantations, and many still live in estate areas, though increasing numbers have moved to urban centers. Government policies since the 1970s have aimed to increase Malay participation in urban economies, contributing to a more mixed demographic in cities like Kuala Lumpur. [Source: Thomas Williamson, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001]

Ethnic identity has also shaped the physical and cultural landscape. Many towns developed around commercial streets lined with Chinese-owned businesses, while government-led projects have incorporated Malay and Islamic architectural elements to reinforce national identity. Past policies, including the relocation of some Chinese communities into “new villages” during the mid-20th century, have also left a lasting imprint on settlement patterns.

Public space in Malaysia has historically carried political sensitivities, with regulations on gatherings and demonstrations reflecting concerns about ethnic tensions and social stability. As a result, there has often been a clear distinction between public and private space in everyday life. Homes are typically arranged to accommodate guests in designated front areas, reflecting cultural norms around hospitality and the careful management of social interactions.

Malaysia Bans Hillside Developments after Landslide

In December 2008, the Malaysian government banned hillside developments after a weekend landslide in suburban Kuala Lumpur killed four people and forced thousands to evacuate. "I am sure this will incur the wrath of individual land owners and developers but enough is enough," Prime Minister Abdullah said, according to Sunday's Star, ordering current projects to be frozen while soil tests are carried out. "Future projects will also not go on to prevent any further worsening of the soil conditions at the hilly area," he told the daily after a series of landslides in northeastern Kuala Lumpur. [Source: AFP, December 7, 2008]

AFP reported: “The latest disaster hit early Saturday, burying 14 houses at the upmarket estate of Bukit Antarabangsa, cutting off access for thousands of residents and disrupting water, electricity and phone lines. Among the four dead was a 20-year-old who was found by his father buried under the rubble still clutching a mobile phone, the Star reported. One person is reportedly still missing. Police ordered 3,000 to 5,000 residents living nearby to evacuate their homes.

"Malaysians never want to learn from past experiences. They want good views while developers only seek to profit ... no one takes safety and soil stability into consideration," the prime minister said. "We will be courting more tragedies if we do not care and protect hillsides," he said. Opposition parliamentarian Lim Kit Siang accused the government of "sheer criminal negligence" over the incident. He said in a statement that officials bore responsibility for "closing an eye to dangerous hillside developments and in totally ignoring the lessons of the Highland Towers tragedy 15 years ago."

Selangor police chief Khalid Abu Bakar ordered residents from a condominium tower located near the landslide site to evacuate immediately, fearing it "may collapse at any time," the state Bernama news agency reported.

Forest City

Forest City is a massive, master-planned development located off the coast of Johor Bahru in southern Malaysia, near Singapore. Built on four artificial islands, the project is led by China’s Country Garden and is valued at around $100 billion. The development was designed to accommodate up to 700,000 residents across a landscape of residential towers, commercial districts, parks, hotels, and schools. Its scale alone places it among the most ambitious urban projects in Southeast Asia. [Source: Marielle Descalsota, Business Insider, June 8, 2022; Pooja Thakur Mahrotri and En Han Choong, Bloomberg, November 22, 2016]

The physical layout emphasizes a blend of dense urban living and greenery. High-rise apartment blocks are interspersed with landscaped gardens, waterfront promenades, and recreational spaces. The project includes infrastructure such as shopping malls, international schools, and resort facilities, aiming to function as a self-contained city. Underground walkways and integrated transport systems were also part of the long-term plan.

Construction began in the mid-2010s and progressed rapidly, with thousands of units built in a short period. Large sales galleries showcased detailed models of the completed city, highlighting its futuristic design. Early phases included residential complexes, hotels, and leisure amenities, with more phases planned over several decades.

Forest City is part of the broader Iskandar Malaysia development zone, a special economic area created to spur growth near Singapore. The region has attracted both local and foreign developers, with multiple large-scale projects underway. Forest City stands out within this zone due to its size, its artificial island setting, and its heavy reliance on international buyers.

Promise and Hype of Forest City

Forest City was marketed as a “city of the future,” combining modern technology, sustainability, and luxury living. Promotional materials described it as a green, smart city with clean energy systems, vertical gardens, and a high quality of life. Its proximity to Singapore was a major selling point, offering a lower-cost alternative to one of the world’s most expensive housing markets. [Source: Marielle Descalsota, Business Insider, June 8, 2022; Pooja Thakur Mahrotri and En Han Choong, Bloomberg, November 22, 2016]

Developers and planners promoted the project as a regional growth engine. Like Shenzhen’s transformation from a fishing village into a global metropolis, Forest City was envisioned as a catalyst for economic expansion in southern Malaysia. It was expected to attract businesses, skilled workers, and international investors, creating jobs and boosting regional development.

Sales strategies targeted foreign buyers, particularly from China. Potential customers were flown in on subsidized tours, shown luxury showrooms, and encouraged to purchase units on the spot. Prices, though high by local standards, were marketed as bargains compared to property in Singapore or major Chinese cities.

The broader Iskandar Malaysia initiative reinforced this optimism. Government planners and investors saw the area as a long-term project that would benefit from infrastructure, industrial growth, and cross-border economic activity. The expectation was that population growth, rising incomes, and regional integration would eventually fill the vast number of new homes.

Problems with Forest City

Despite its ambitious vision, Forest City has faced significant economic and structural challenges. One major issue has been oversupply: hundreds of thousands of housing units were planned or built in Johor, far exceeding immediate demand. Property prices fell in some segments, and many developers struggled to find buyers. [Source: Marielle Descalsota, Business Insider, June 8, 2022; Rick Kazmer, The Cool Down, August 1, 2023]

Affordability has also been a key problem. Units in Forest City are priced far beyond the reach of most Malaysians, limiting the local buyer base. At the same time, foreign demand has been constrained by government policies, including minimum purchase prices for foreigners and taxes on resale. These factors reduced the pool of potential buyers the project depended on.

Environmental concerns have added to the controversy. The artificial islands were created through large-scale land reclamation, involving massive amounts of sand dumped into the sea. Experts have warned about long-term stability issues, including sinking land and structural cracks, as well as damage to marine ecosystems and coastal environments.

The development has also affected nearby communities, particularly fishermen. Changes to the coastline and marine conditions have reduced fish stocks, forcing fishermen to travel farther and increasing risks. Questions have also been raised about labor practices, including the treatment and conditions of migrant workers involved in construction.

Forest City — the Ghost Town

Years after construction began, large parts of Forest City remain sparsely populated. Although tens of thousands of units have reportedly been sold, only a small fraction are occupied. Many residential towers stand largely empty, with dark windows at night and little visible activity during the day. [Source: Marielle Descalsota, Business Insider, June 8, 2022; Rick Kazmer, The Cool Down, August 1, 2023]

Visitors often note the contrast between the scale of development and the lack of human presence. Roads are quiet, shops are closed or abandoned, and public spaces are underused. In some residential complexes, only a handful of residents occupy buildings designed for hundreds of people.Commercial areas have struggled even more. Shopping malls and retail spaces are mostly vacant, with only a few businesses still operating. Some areas have been repurposed for storage, while others show signs of neglect. Hotels and resorts have also seen limited use, with some facilities closed for extended periods.

The result is a landscape often described as a “ghost town.” While certain pockets—such as duty-free shops or golf resorts—attract visitors, the overall development lacks a stable, resident population. Although developers remain optimistic about long-term prospects, the gap between the project’s original vision and its current reality remains striking.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings; 1993; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; Smithsonian magazine; Encyclopedia.com; National Geographic; Live Science; Malaysia Tourism websites; Malaysia government websites; UNESCO; Metropolitan Museum of Art; Natural History magazine; Times of London; Library of Congress; The Conversation; The New Yorker; Time; BBC; CNN; Reuters; Associated Press; AFP; Lonely Planet Guides; Google AI; Wikipedia; The Guardian and various websites; books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026