LANGUAGES OF MALAYSIA: BAHASA MELAYU, ENGLISH, NAMES, PROVERBS

LANGUAGES OF MALAYSIA

Malaysian Language Families: 1) Malayic (pink); 2) North Bornean and Melanau-Kajang (orange); 3) Aslian (dark green); 4) Land Dayak (light blueish green); 5) Sama-Bajaw (light green); 6) Philippine (purple); 7) Chinese is spoken mainly in Malayic areas

Languages in Malaysia: Bahasa Melayu (Bahasa Malaysian, official), English, Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainan, Foochow), Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Panjabi, Thai; Malaysia has 134 languages (112 indigenous and 22 non-indigenous); in East Malaysia, there are several indigenous languages, and the most widely spoken are Iban and Kadazan. [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2025]

The Malaysian census does not maintain data for the population of linguistic groups, but language and ethnicity are strongly associated. Chinese is spoken by the Chinese population and Hindi is spoken by ethnic Indians. Mandarin is not only the most widely spoken language in China, it also has many speakers in Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.

English is spoken by most Malaysians to varying degrees. Malaysia is a former British colony and English is taught in the school. An English dialect, sometimes called "Manglish," is used by people from different ethnic groups often to speak with one another. Although it is not difficult to pick up a few words of Malay, visitors generally have no problem getting by without knowing any of the language.

As Bahasa Melayu is Malaysia's national language, it is widely understood by other ethnic groups, although other languages such as Chinese, Tamil, and various Indian and tribal languages are also widely spoken. Malay and English are taught as first and second languages, respectively, in almost every school throughout Malaysia. Although Malay is widely spoken in Malaysia, dialects vary between states. Generally, words are pronounced the way they are spelled, so it is a very easy language to learn. Malay has also borrowed heavily from Sanskrit, Portuguese, Persian, Arabic and English. [Source: P. Bala “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life,” Cengage Learning, 2009]

Malay (Bahasa Melayu)

dialects and languages in Peninsular Malaysia

Bahasa Melayu is the official language. It similar to the language spoken in Indonesia and is not a tonal language like Chinese or Thai.Malay (Bahasa Melayu) belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian family of languages, which are spoken from mainland Southeast Asia to Easter Island. Malay is about as similar to Indonesian as American and British English are to each other. The primary difference between Malay and Indonesian is that former has many British influences and the latter has more Dutch influences. Malay is written in a Latin alphabet (Rumi and an derived Indian script (jawi).

Malay is also considered an Austronesian language. There are 1,200 Austronesia languages—about a fifth of the world's total. They are spoken on islands in the Indian and Pacific oceans from Madagascar to Hawaii. About a hundred different languages are spoken on Vanuatu alone. Malay, Formosan, and most of the languages of Indonesia, the Philippines and Polynesia are Austronesia languages. Example of Bahasa Melayu: Buku Fakta Dunia, sumber yang diperlukan untuk maklumat asas ("World Factbook, an essential resource for basic information").

According to kwintessential.co.uk: The Malay language is an Austronesian language spoken not only by Malaysians but all Malay people who reside in the Malay Peninsula, southern Thailand, the Philippines, Singapore, central eastern Sumatra, the Riau islands, parts of the coast of Borneo, Cocos and Christmas Islands in Australia. It is also very similar to Indonesian, known locally as Bahasa Indonesia.In Malaysia, the language is officially known as Bahasa Malaysia, which translates as the "Malaysian language". The term, which was introduced by the National Language Act 1967, was predominant until the 1990s, when most academics and government officials reverted to "Bahasa Melayu," which is used in the Malay version of the Federal Constitution. [Source: kwintessential.co.uk]

Austronesian Languages

Bahasa Melayu and most of the languages spoken in Malaysia are Austronesian languages — a large language family spoken by around 400 million people today across Southeast Asia and the Indo-Pacific, including Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines Madagascar, and Oceania. Key languages include Malay, Javanese, and Sundanese in Indonesia, and Tagalog, Cebuano, and Ilocano in the Philippines.

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There are 1,200 Austronesia languages — about a fifth of the world's total. They are spoken on island in the Indian and Pacific Oceans from Madagascar to Hawaii. About a hundred different languages are spoken on Vanuatu alone. Malay, Formosan, and most of the languages of Indonesia, the Philippines and Polynesia are Austronesia languages.

After the Indo-European family, Austronesian languages form the largest and most widely dispersed language family in the world. They are spoken across roughly two-thirds of the Earth’s circumference, stretching from Madagascar through Southeast Asia, Taiwan, and the Philippines, and across most of the Pacific. Many are spoken by fewer than 10,000 people. [Source: Encyclopedia of World Cultures, Volume 2: Oceania, edited by Terence E. Hays, 1991 |~|]

See Separate Article: AUSTRONESIAN PEOPLE OF THE PACIFIC, INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, TAIWAN AND THE PHILIPPINES: ORIGIN, HISTORY, EXPANSION factsanddetails.com

Mixture of Languages in Malaysia

Charukesi Ramadurai wrote for the BBC: It is impossible to stay isolated within one’s own community in Malaysia. Not surprisingly, the streets ring with the official language of Malay as well as Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese and Hainanese, and Tamil, Hindi, Gujarati and Punjabi, among other Indian languages. In fact, my Malaysian friends take great pride in a unique concept called Bahasa Rojak, meaning mixture of languages (after rojak, a local salad with often contrasting textures and flavours), often lapsing into a Malay phrase or a dismayed “Aiyyo!” in Tamil in the middle of English conversations. [Source: Charukesi Ramadurai, BBC, March 10, 2021]

Bahasa Rojak came into existence in the early 15th Century, as did the concept of muhibbah itself. Mukherjee explained that Malacca (and other port towns like Kedah) was an important trading hub on the spice route, and for the sake of commerce, the local governments were always accepting of new languages and cultures. “Traditionally, migratory routes were never policed in the same way as mainstream cities, and in Malacca too, it was easy for communities to intermingle, for instance, through business transactions and even marriages,” she said. The conversational pidgin adopted by traders to communicate with each other lingers on as easy code-switching among Malaysians. Add to this intermarriage among communities, and contemporary Malaysia’s multicultural DNA was created.

Malay Proverbs

"No Admittance" sign in five languages in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. Top to bottom: Malay, English, Chinese, Punjabi and Tamil

1) A fool is like the big drum that beats fast but does not realize its hollowness. 2) A heavy load should be borne together as well as a light load. 3) After Falling, The ladder falls on you. 4) An ox with long horns, even if he does not butt, will be accused of butting. 5) An unasked excuse infers transgression. 6) Ants die in sugar. 7) As long as you happen to put your hand in a container full of pickles, might as well dip your whole arm in the container. 8) Because of a drop of blue dye,a whole pot of milk is contaminated. 9) Because of lack of talent in dancing, the floor is blamed. 10) Bit by bit, in the end it becomes a hill. [Source: special-dictionary.com //\

1) A calf is given, but then thigh is requested. 12) Clapping with the right hand only will not produce a noise. 13) Do not think that placid water is without crocodiles. 14) Gold rain drops on a foreign country,wherelse rain of stones drops on our country,but our country is better. 15) If there is no reason, why would the tempua bird nest on the low branches? 16. If you have, give; if you lack, seek) 17. If you want something, you'll do a thousand things to obtain it) But if you don't want something, you'll give a thousand excuses to refrain from it. 18) Just because you are irritated by a mosquito, you burn the mosquito curtain. 19) Like a monkey who eats belacaan. 20) Like the peanut, who forgets its shell. //\

1) Sehari selembar benang lama-lama jadi kain Sedikit-sedikit lama-lama jadi bukit (Incremental efforts do make a difference as the benefits accumulate. A little effort in time makes a hill, and a thread woven eventually becomes cloth). 2) Berakit-rakit kehulu Berenang-renang ketepian Bersakit-sakit dahulu Bersenang-senang kemudian (An old pantun (quatrain) that contains within it a proverb. "Tis better to suffer in the beginning for the pleasure that comes later). 3) Air yang tenang jangan disangka tiada buaya (Still water runs deep. Never take for granted a quiet person, for he may have qualities that belie his quiet nature). 4) Bagai aur dengan tebing Bagai kuku dengan isi (Like the bamboo and the river bank, and like the fingernail and the flesh beneath, each is dependent on the other for their mutual survival).

5) Air dicincang takkan putus Biduk lalu kiambang bertaut (Water cannot be cut, and blood is thicker than water. Like the seaweed that clings to each other after each passing boat separates them, so too a family will come together with the passing of each crisis). 6) Kalau menggenggam bara biar sampai jadi abu Alang-alang menyeluk pekasam biar sampai kepangkal lengan (Something is worth doing that is worth doing well. If you choose to hold a burning ember in your hand, hold fast until it turns to ashes. So too, should you decide to plunge your hand into a pot of pickles, go in all the way up to your elbow). 7) Kalau meluntur buluh, biarlah waktu rebong (To bend a bamboo, start when it's still a shoot. To mould a person's character, begin when he's still young and impressionable). [Source: Kampungnet.com, Contributed by Ms Siswahani Saban]

Malay Insults and Cuss Words

“Half past six” is an insult used in Singapore and Malaysia that means “useless.” “Mak kau ada kotek. Mak kau ada puki. Mak kau jolok diri sendiri sebab tu dapat anak sial macam kau! means “Your mother has a dick. Your mother has a pussy. Your mother fucked herself and got a retarded child like you!”

Pantat (Sabah-East) — Pussy, vagina; Pantat (West Malaysia) — Ass, buttocks; Amput puki babi — Fuck a pig's cunt; Amput puki anjing — Fuck a dog's cunt; Puki — Pussy; Pepek — Pussy; Lempuduk — Pussy; Puki mak — Fuck your mother; Saya mahu amput mama kau — I want to fuck your mom; Hisap telur — Suck my balls; Konek — Penis, cock, dick; Peler — Penis, cock, dick; Tantalau — Penis, cock, dick; Tetek — Boobs, breasts; Chin hooi — Asshole; Kepala Butoh — A stupid jerk; Jubur — Ass; Bodoh — Stupid; Celaka — Infidel; Jilat puki — Lick my pussy. [Source: Myinsults.com ~]

Perempuan sundal — Whore, Slut; Melancap — Masturbate; Anak haram — Bastard (illegitimate child); Anjuk (Sarawak Malay) — Fuck from behind; Jantan sial — Bastard; Bapuk — She-male; Pondan — An effeminate man; Puki mak — Mom's pussy; Sial — A pitiable unfortunate; Pelacur — Whore; Anak gampang — Child of an unmarried women; Mak Nyah — Drag Queen; Jalan macam ala-ala akak lagi nyahh — He is walking like a drag queen; Pantat mak ko laaa — Your mother's pussy; Burit — Pussy; Gampang — Bastard; Cingkak — Crazy Bitch; Sundal — Whore; Jalang — Whore; Babi — Pig; Tonyok — Pig; Pukimak Kau — Your mother's pussy; Konek — Penis; Kote — Penis; Ngongkek — Fucking; Aku henjut mak kau — I fucked your mum; Pergi mampus — Go and die; Butoh pak hang — Your father's dick; Nonok — Pussy; Nonok Kau — Your Pussy; Jilat nonok kau — Lick your pussy; Totok — Pussy; Totok kau — Your Pussy; Jilat Totok Kau — Lick Your Pussy. ~

Pantat Kau lah! (Sabah) — Your Ass!; Hentam Pantat (Sabah) — Fuck Ass (referring to a gay men); Iut (Pro: 'E-youth'; new Malay swear word) — Fuck; Iut mamak kau lah — Fuck your mother!; Mari iut — Let's Fuck; Iut pantat kau — Fuck your ass; Kaki iut — Mother Fucker (means promiscuous); Iut totok kau — Fuck your pussy; Anak luar nikah — Bastard (Illegitimate); Lahanat — Infidel; Batang bengkok — Crooked dick; Miang — Pervert; Bantaton! — Damn it!; Cingkolou — Penis, cock; Tonton (Sabah) — Pussy; Jilat tonton — Lick pussy; Ne-nen — Breast, tits; Hisap ne-nen saya! — Suck my tits!; Kepala bana — Dick head; Kecing berapi — Extreme liar; Mangkuk hanyun — Stupid idiot; Bahlul — Idiot; Konek babi — Pig's dick; Mak kau main belakang — Your mum takes it up the ass; Bapak kau telur kecut — Your dad has puny balls; Gatal burit — Itchy cunt; Kopek lanjut — Saggy tits; Haram jadah — Fucked up dipshit mother fucker; Pergi mampus — Go to hell; Tetek senget — Uneven tits; Telur loyot — Saggy balls; Burit lebeh — Ugly cunt; Pepek daki — Dirty cunt; Palat — Smelly dick; Hisap konek — Suck dick; Jilat jubur — Lick asshole; Kulum kote — Suck dick; Puting lendir — Nipple discharge; Bijik kelentit mak kau busuk — Your mother's clitoris stinks; Kaki toceng — Wanker; Bapak kau main jubur — Your dad fucks up the ass; Puki basi — Expired/menopausal cunt; Puki Busuk — Smelly cunt; Kepala Butoh — Dick head. ~

Anjing kurap — Sick dog; Mangkuk hayun — Pussy, cunt; Kodok, katak — Pussy, cunt; Bijik hang — Your clit; Bijik gatal — Horny girls; Kodok tersengih — Spread pussy; Mulut bawah — Pussy, cunt; Kerang busuk — Smelly pussy; Bijik panjang — Long clitoris; Nanti tercicir bijik — Don't run; Sial — Damned; Butu buruk — Broken penis; Pelir mamak — Uncle dick; Butuh tua — Old dick; Jilat lubang puki — Lick pussy; Lahanat — Asshole; Barua — Ass; Tetek menglebeh — Big breast; Cipap — Pussy; Kote neraka — Big cock; Pondan — Gay; Jual pungkuk — Slut; Yet meh — Fuck; Ai heh — Asshole; Isap kote anjing/kuda — Suck horse cock; Bulak kau — Your penis; Balabak kau — Your balls; Badus — Penis; Toli — Penis; Bintorung kau — Penis; Ngegeh — Annoying; Gambong (Sarawak Malay) — Show off; Pukek — Vagina. ~

Punat gajus — Small nipple; Konek gajus — Small dick; Dasar puki mak tak pernah basuh dapat anak sial macam engkau — A cursed son like you comes from your mother's dirty pussy.; Cubuk mamak kau mandi — Peeping your own mother while she was showering.; Sebelum awak mati, saya nak kau tahu, saya iut mak kau. — Before you die, I want you to know that I fucked your mother.; Kodok tembam — Swollen pussy; Bijik tersentil — Erect clitoris; horny girls; Pantat berserabai — Big ugly pussy; Burit — Vagina; Boon Chon Doi — Refers to a man who walks behind his boss, reaching between his legs and supporting his balls. English equivalent would be 'ass-kisser'.; Kepala butto — Dick head; Lanchiau — Dick; Cibai — Pussy. ~

English in Malaysia

Spoken languages in Malaysia and their functions Researchgate

Although he railed against the West, Prime Minister Mahathir moved for English to be more widely taught in schools. Fundamentalist want children to learn Arabic as a second language.

Malay words that have entered the English language include bamboo, bantam, orangutan, teak, sarong and gingham.

When Malaysia was a British colony and in the first years of independence, English was the primarily language of upper learning and a prerequisite for getting job and achieving success. Now Malay is the primary language of interaction in Malaysian schools and universities and students no longer need to pass an English exam to graduate.

In 2000, 40 percent of the high school students failed the national English exam. Survey have also shown that teachers and principals lack good English skills.

Many Malaysians are worried about their declining English skills at time when English is more essential than every to compete on the global market place. Malaysia’s English skills had traditionally been regarded as something that gave it an edge over other countries in Asia.

In Malaysian English: Agak-agak is a verbs that means to estimate or guess.

Malaysians without English Skills Can’t Get Good Jobs

Stephanie Phang of Bloomberg wrote: “ Sevan Doraisamy earned a business management degree from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 1999. With limited English skills, he ended up working in a factory — in Singapore. “I couldn't find any job'' in Malaysia, said Doraisamy, 32, whose Singapore stint and subsequent jobs taught him some English, and who now works at the Center for Independent Journalism in Kuala Lumpur. "All this Malay-orientated when you go to university, but then when immediately switch to work environment, everything is in English. I speak like the sentence never end.'' [Source: Stephanie Phang, Bloomberg, December 5, 2006 +^+]

“Malaysia shifted to the Malay tongue, Bahasa Melayu, from English as the language of teaching in 1970. Now, universities are producing graduates who don't make the grade in the workforce. In a country with 237,000 job vacancies, about 45,000 college grads are unemployed, mainly because of poor English, according to the government. Many of those who have found work aren't using their degree skills. “The cause of the under-employment? I'll give you one reason for it: English,'' said Rafiah Salim, vice chancellor at Universiti Malaya, the country's oldest university. "The only industry that's really using Bahasa is the government service.'' +^+

“The glut of graduates was confirmed in 2005, when the government's Economic Planning Unit asked the unemployed to register for a survey to gauge who was out of work and why. Nearly 60,000 jobless grads — equivalent to a quarter of those who finished their higher education this year — signed up. About 15,000 since have found work.

The finding prompted Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi to budget a 53 percent increase in spending on education and training to $2.2 billion next year. Malaysia risks losing more overseas investment to India and China if graduates don't have the right skills, said Gan Kim Khoon, head of research at AmSecurities Holdings Sdn. in Kuala Lumpur. Foreign direct investment fell 14 percent in 2005 to $4 billion, the only decline among the 10 Association of South East Asian Nations members. +^+

“Apart from learning little English, students are choosing subjects not suited to business employment, such as arts, Islamic studies and administration, said Gan, 43. Almost 30,000, or 60 percent, of first-time graduates from public colleges in 2003 took arts degrees. “Those are not very useful,'' he said. "There is no thought going into whether these are the kinds of graduates that the country needs.''+^+

“Malaysia switched to Bahasa education in a bid to promote integration between the country's more than 60 percent of ethnic Malays and ethnic Chinese, who comprise a quarter of the 26 million residents. Lawmakers also set college quotas from 1970 to 2002 to ensure that Malays gained access to professional jobs. They rolled back some language rules in 2003, reviving math and science lessons in English starting in primary school. Lobbyists for wider use of Bahasa want that decision reversed. Only underdeveloped countries "practice the colonial policy of teaching science subjects in a foreign language,'' Hassan Ahmad, a former chief of the government body responsible for coordinating the use of Bahasa, told the Bahasa and Malay Literature Congress in Kuala Lumpur last month. +^+

“Proficiency in English is a key component of college training programs introduced this year, said Deputy Higher Education Minister Ong Tee Keat. Higher Education Minister Mustapa Mohamed didn't respond to requests for comment. Safura Mohd Hariri, 22, earned an information technology management degree from Multimedia University in Selangor in May. She waited six months to land a job as a systems analyst, and many of her peers now work in call centers where they don't need degree knowledge, she said. +^+

“About 50,000 high school graduates, 25,000 higher-education graduates and 20,000 degree holders are unemployed, Deputy Human Resources Minister Abdul Rahman Bakar told parliament last month. Colleges should ensure they have up-to-date textbooks and use English in lectures, said Rahmat Roslan Hashim, head of human resources at the Malaysian unit of Standard Chartered Plc, a British bank that makes two-thirds of its profit in Asia. “Communication basically is the area where local grads lag,'' Rahmat said. "About two generations lost English skills.'' +^+

“More than half of 3,800 recruiters and managers surveyed last year by online recruitment company Jobstreet Corp. cited poor English as the reason for rejecting graduates. They also blamed antiquated skills in subjects such as engineering. "People don't have the type of skill sets that companies are looking for, whether it's commercial or technical,'' said Suresh Thirugnanam, vice president at Jobstreet in Cyberjaya, Selangor. Nga Lik Hing, 22, gained a multimedia degree from Universiti Putra Malaysia in May and now earns 1,500 ringgit ($422) a month keying in data for an online recruitment company. Employers want different skills from those he learned, Nga said. Questions at interviews for English-language jobs aren't easy, either. "Like, why our company want hire you,'' Nga said. "Sometimes don't know how answer.'' +^+

Malaysians Angry Over Plans to Make Students Learn Arabic Calligraphy

In July, 2019 Malaysia’s Ministry of Education announced that lessons on khat—a form of Arabic calligraphy—would be introduced into Malay-language classes for Year Four primary students. The ministry stated that the lessons were intended “to train students to write beautifully and to instil an element of fun,” while also enhancing understanding of the history, art, and heritage of the Malay language. Malay is typically written in the Latin alphabet, but the Arabic-derived Jawi script has historical significance and continues to be used in some administrative and religious contexts. Many Muslim students learn Jawi in religious classes to read the Koran. [Source: BBC, August 7, 2019]

The proposal generated widespread and often emotionally charged debate. Critics, particularly from Tamil- and Mandarin-language education groups, argued that the lessons would add to teachers’ workloads and provide limited educational benefit. Some also expressed concern that the initiative reflected broader pressures to prioritize Malay and Islamic cultural elements in a multiethnic society. Members of the Democratic Action Party (DAP), which has strong support among Malaysian Chinese, questioned the policy, noting that students in vernacular schools could be required to learn “three languages and four writing systems.”

The issue provoked strong reactions, including protests and isolated incidents such as vandalism directed at party offices. Leaders in the states of Sabah and Sarawak also raised concerns, emphasizing local challenges such as under-resourced schools in remote areas and calling for greater autonomy in education policy. Supporters of the policy, however, argued that the controversy was disproportionate. They noted that khat occupies only six pages in a 164-page textbook and amounts to approximately 40 minutes of instruction per year. One newspaper columnist suggested that, rather than signaling cultural imposition, the lessons could be understood as limited exposure to artistic and historical traditions.

The debate over khat instruction highlights broader tensions in Malaysia regarding language, education, and cultural identity, particularly the balance between national integration and the preservation of minority linguistic and cultural rights.

Names and Honorifics in Malaysia

In Malaysia the family name comes first. For example, with Anwar Ibrahim, Anwar is his family name, Ibrahim is his given name. Women keep their maiden name. Azizah Ismail is Anwar's wife.

Malay names are essentially Arabic names, as Malays are Muslim. Malay names do not have surnames. Instead, a name consists of the person's given name, followed by 'bin' (son of) or 'binti' (daughter of), then the father's first or full name. For example, Helmy, the son of Ismail Nik Dali, would be Helmy bin Ismail or Helmy bin Ismail Nik Dali. The same principle applies to women's names, except their given name is followed by 'binti'. Common women's names include Fatimah, Lattifah, Zaiton, Aminah and Zaleha, while common men's names include Ahmad, Sulaiman, Jamalludin, Zakaria and Ismail. [Source: P. Bala “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life,” Cengage Learning, 2009 *]

Malays and Indians have customarily not had family names. Instead they inherited their father’s given name. Malays often have the prefixes “bin,” which means “son of” and “binti” which means “daughter of” in front of their names. Indians have prefixes that were imposed during Britain colonial rule. To bring Malaysian names in line with international standards the government has proposed giving for everyone a surname. Muslims have opposed the proposal on the ground sit would compromise their cultural identity.

According to kwintessential.co.uk: The way names are used also varies between ethnicities: 1) The Chinese traditionally have 3 names. The surname (family name) is first and is followed by two personal names. Many Chinese adopt more Western names and may ask you to use that instead. 2) Many Malays do not have surnames. Instead, men add their father's name to their own name with the term "bin" (meaning ‘son of’). So Rosli bin Suleiman, would be Rosli the son of Suleiman. Women use the term "binti", so Aysha bint Suleiman is Aysha the daughter of Suleiman. 3) Many Indians do not use surnames. Instead, they place the initial of their father's name in front of their own name. The man's formal name is their name "s/o" (son of) and the father's name. Women use "d/o" to refer to themselves as the daughter of their father. [Source: kwintessential.co.uk]

Datuk Seri is a title granted by the Malaysian sultan that is similar to the British title Sir.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings; 1993; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; Smithsonian magazine; Encyclopedia.com; National Geographic; Live Science; Malaysia Tourism websites; Malaysia government websites; UNESCO; Metropolitan Museum of Art; Natural History magazine; Times of London; Library of Congress; The Conversation; The New Yorker; Time; BBC; CNN; Reuters; Associated Press; AFP; Lonely Planet Guides; Google AI; Wikipedia; The Guardian and various websites; books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026