ARCHITECTURE IN SRI LANKA
Architectural structures found in Sri Lanka include dagobas (Buddhist stupas), Buddhist and Hindu temples, viharas (Buddhist monasteries), tanks (wewas, vast man-made reservoirs) and European-influenced buildings. The constructive and artistic skill the Buddhist Sinhalese, the main ethnic group on Sri Lanka, reached a high level. The two largest dagobas at Anuradhapura exceed the height of all the pyramids in Egypt except Khufu and Khafra at Giza.
Secular Sri Lankan architecture includes palaces, assembly halls, council chambers, royal pleasure gardens, houses of chieftains and farmers, rest halls and other types of buildings. European influenced features found in Sri Lanka include Portuguese-style pitch roofs and balconies; Dutch-style forts; and British-style hill stations.
Hindu temples are called “kovils”. Most are dedicated to Shiva. They typically consist of a prayer hall and an inner sanctum that contains an image of the Hindu deity the temple is dedicated to and is off limits to everyone but priests at the temple. Around this is a covered space for worshipers to walk in a clockwise fashion around the inner sanctum and prayer hall. Above the inner sanctum is a dome- or pyramid-shaped tower that represents Mt. Meru and is called the “sikhara”. Some temples have elaborately-decorated, often brightly-colored gateways known as “gopurmas”.
In terms of planning, historical towns and cities contain monasteries, meditation parks, temples, devala villages and irrigation schemes with village tanks and large reservoirs fed by transbasin canals. There are also parks and pleasure gardens for public use and for use of royalty. There are sometimes facilities for people who arrive pilgrimages and festival, the most important of which are on the full moon of May (Wesak), June (Poson) and August (Esala).
Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka
There are essentially three kinds of Buddhist structures: 1) stupas, bell-shaped structures that contain a holy relic or scripture and generally can not be entered; 2)temples, place of worship somewhat similar to a church; and 3) monasteries, which contain living quarters and meditation cells for monks. Temples have an open interior that may be entered and in which are displayed one or more images as a focus for worship.
There are two main kinds of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka: 1) a vihara, a monastery complex with a shrine that houses a Buddha statue; and 2) a devale, a shrine used in the worship of a Buddhist god, Hindu god or a local Sri Lanka god. In the old days these structure were usually separate. Later many Buddhist vihara were built with devales inside.
The “vatadage” is a distinctly Sinhalese architectural feature. It is comprised of a dagoba (stupa, mound-like or hemispherical structure containing Buddhist relics), flanked by Buddhist statues and encircled by a row of columns. When they were built the columns supported a wooden roof that has long since disappeared. The “gedige” is another distinctly Sinhalese feature. It is a thick-walled, windowless, box-like structure with “corbelled” (trussed) roof. Some have walls that are so thick that stairs have been built into them. In the ancient cities of Sri Lanka, the roofs on almost all of these structures has collapsed. .
Early History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka
According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne; Buddhism was introduced into the island by the missionary son of Ashoka — Arahat Mahinda— in the 3rd century B.C. Ashoka is credited to have given birth to Buddhist Architecture in India which spread to the neighboring countries. The Architectural remains of Sri Lanka, of Buddhist monuments can be studied and dated from three sources: 1) The Mahawansa ,a great chronicle that gives an account of the work done by each King during his period; 2) Epigraphical, letters inscribed on rock often to record donation of a building or monastery; 3) archeological evidence from excavation and the monuments. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
Since Buddhist architecture in Sri Lanka is linked with the spread of Buddhism in India it is relevant and necessary to look at Buddhist architecture in India. In this study the main architectural type is the pillar, i.e. Stumba. Other architectural forms are the Stupa, the chaitya and the vihara. The pillar in Indian architecture has been traced to the Vedic yupa set up at the sacrificial altar. The best examples of the pillar are those set up by Ashoka bearing his edicts. These free standing pillars of polished sandstone were erected along the highways and at places sacred to the Buddhists. A pillar consists of a shaft and a capital. The shaft is monolithic and is carved out to be circular in section and tapering to the top. The capital craved separately was in three parts, an inverted lotus, an abacus and the crowning figure of an animal. The abacus was circular or square and had relieves of animals carved on it. The crowning animal has been a bull, an elephant, a lion or a horse.
Arahat Mahinda introduced Buddhism during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa (307-267 B.C.), who developed Sri Lanka’s ancient capital, Anuradhapura, the king built the Mahavihara, the first temple and monastery in Sri Lanka, built as residence for the monks (sangha), after dedicating the Nandana and Mahamega royal pleasure gardens to the Maha Sangha. The earliest monument found in Sri Lanka is the stupa. See Below. [Source: WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka]
Dagobas (Stupas)
Stupas are generally a hemispherical dome surmounted with a spire (kota). They are solid structures that typically cannot be entered and were constructed to contain sacred Buddhist relics that are hidden from view (and vandals) in containers buried at their core or in the walls. They are called dagobas in Sri Lanka.
Dagobas are perhaps the most distinctive architectural features in Sri Lanka. Some are quite massive (See Anuradhapura). Some are small enough to fit into caves. The shape of dagobas was reportedly inspired by the leaf of the bodhi tree, the tree under which the Buddha experienced enlightenment. Dagobas come in a half dozen shapes, inspired by things like bells, bubbles and piles of rice stalks. Mirisaveti Stupa, an early dagoba was built in the shape of a pile of paddy rice. The stupa at Nadigamvila is said to have been built in the shape of an onion.
The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The design of those in Sri Lanka are similar to stupas found elsewhere with the entrances laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic chambers. Many of the most famous ones are made mostly of brick and covered by plaster and lime wash that contained things like clay, sand, pebbles, crushed seashells, sugar syrup, white of egg, coconut water, plant resin, drying oil, glues and saliva of white ants. The fine plaster at Kiri Vehera used small pebbles, crushed seashells mixed with lime. [Source: Wikipedia]
A typical dagoba rests on a platform, used by pilgrims to walk around the shine (the main part of the dagoba, containing the relic), with steps at the four cardinal points. The relics were placed in an area that had been hollowed out of the brick. A piece of granite with nine hollowed-out squares holds the relics and offerings that accompanied it. At the top is a box -like structure. It used to house the relics. On top of its is a ceremonial umbrella. called the “chatta”. An ornamented vahalkada (structure joining a stupa to its four cardinal directions) was added to stupa design around the 2nd century. The earliest is at Chaitya. Here the four vahalkadas face the cardinal points, ornamented with figures of animals, flowers, swans and dwarfs. The pillars on either side of the vahalkada carry figures of lions, elephants, horses or bulls, depending on the direction of the structure.
The largest dagobas of Sri Lanka are the largest brick structures built in the pre-modern world. Demala Maha Seya, which was never completed, had a circumference of 613 meters (2,011 feet). Jetavanaramaya was the third tallest building from the ancient world. It was 122 meters tall at the time of its completion and was the largest stupa constructed in any part of the world. Abhayagiri Dagaba (112 meters, 370 feet) and Ruwanwelisaya (91.5 meters, 300 feet) were also massive constructions of the ancient world.
According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka”: In Sri Lanka or elsewhere the Stupa indicates a spot sacred to Buddhism. Stupas are said to enshrine the Saririka, bodily relics, Paribosika, objects associated with the Buddha, Udesika relics sacred to Buddhism. The Stupa evolved from the prehistoric burial mound. The stupa form was introduced from India and in the early examples retain the characteristics of the Ashoka form at Sanchi. However, over the years many large and small Stupas came to be erected by pious Kings for the Enshrinement of Buddha relics or as commemorative Stupas or to contain objects associated with the Buddha and the Dhamma. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
“The shapes of the Stupas developed according to their size and one is able today to recognize six significant examples defined by the shape of the dome. Such shapes as the Bubble, the Bell shape, the Pot shape, the Lotus shape, the Heap of Paddy shape and the Amalaka shape are seen in the large Maha Vihara as well as the small Stupa of the village temple. The Stupa also gains its value from the enshrinment of telics or sacred objects at various levels done with great reverence and meanings. Several ancient Stupas now in ruins have revealed their sacred treasures providing the art historian much material for study.
History of Dagobas in Sri Lanka
The earliest monument found in Sri Lanka is the stupa. During the time of Emperor Asoka, numerous stupas were built at sacred sites in India. In these were enshrined relics of the Buddha which people venerated. Ashoka is said to have enshrined the ashes of The Buddha in eight Stupas which have not been found and is said to have constructed as many as 84,000 Stupas. He is credited with initiating the practice of Stupa worship.
When it was observed that there were no Buddha relics in Sri Lanka, the king, on Arahat Mahinda s suggestion, appealed to Emperor Asoka to send some relics. He responded to the king s request and sent the right collarbone relic of the Buddha. [Source: WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka]
The king built the Thuparama dagoba to enshrine this relic. This was thus the oldest stupa built in Sri Lanka. Originally it was in the shape of a heap of paddy but as restorations were done in later years, it took the form as seen today. It has a diameter of 59 feet 6 inches at the base. As the name suggests, Thuparama comprised a stupa and an arama , a residential complex. Ruins of such a complex can be seen within an area of over three acres around the stupa .
The stupas built later on were much larger than the Thuparama. King Dutugemunu (161-137 B.C.) built the Mirisaveti which ha a diameter of 168 feet at the base and the most venerated stupa — Ruvanvali Mahaseya, also known as Ratnamali Mahathupa. While the base has a diameter of 289 feet, the height is given as 120 cubits (riyan), equivalent to around 300 feet. It took the form of bubbulakara or bubble shape.
In the middle of the dagoba was built a relic chamber, in the center of which was placed a bo-tree made of precious metals, and an image of the Buddha round which were groups of figures representing various events in the life of the Buddha. When the Abhyayagiri dagoba was originally built by King Vattagamani (Valagamba — 103 B.C.) it was not very large but later enlargements made it larger than the Mahathupa. King Mahasena (276-303 CE) is credited with building the largest of them all — the Jetavana, which has a diameter of 367 feet at the base. Though the present height is estimated at 232 feet, the original height is supposed to have been 160 cubits.
Large stupas were also built at Mihintale at the site where Arahat Mahinda met the king, Magama, Dighavapi (near Ampara), Kataragama and other places. The builders of stupas in Sri Lanka had closely followed the designs of such monuments built in Sanchi and other places in India. In huge monuments, the dome rose from a triple-based platform. The dome was surmounted by a square railing of wood or stone which later became a cube of masonry. A stone pillar embedded in the dome rose above the railing. The stupa was crowned by an umbrella (chattra) or a series of umbrellas.
After the A.D. 4th century, the building of colossal dagobas has virtually ended. Thereafter smaller ones were built using Thuparama in Anuradhapura as a model. This type came to be known as vatadage or rotunda. It is a circular relic house and apart from Thuparama and Lankarama in Anuradhapura, the best example is seen in Polonnaruwa.
Dagobas (Stupas) at Anuradhapura
Anuradhapura was the capital of Sri Lanka for nearly fifteen centuries, from the third century B.C. to about the end of the thirteenth century, The dagobas (stupas) at Anuradhapura are shaped like a colossal kaiser helmets and rise high above the tree line. Built to enshrine sacred Buddhist relics, they generally comprised of an earthen interior covered by bricks, which in turn are covered by a coat of lime plaster. Each year the dagobas draw thousands of pilgrims, who walk clockwise around them on the platforms that surround them. Around the main dagobas are trees, remain of pools and ponds and various ruins.
The great stupas of Anuradhapura enshrine the remains or objects associated with Buddha and the arhants. or the enlightened ones. The three great stupas of Anuradhapura also seem to be oriented towards stars and constellations which is also said to the case with and Angkor Wat in Cambodia and pyramids in Egypt and Mexico,
The three great stupas of Anuradhapura — Mirisavatiya, Ruvanweliya and Jetavanaya — are perfectly aligned with the three stars in the constellation of Orion, namely Rigel, Al Nitak and Bellatrix. The three sides of the triangle in the ground layout of the three stupas, built between 161 B.C. and A.D. 331, correlates precisely with the three sides of the triangle of three stars on the right-hand wing of the constellation. New Agers say that Ruwanweliseya could have been a giant energy storing device, which could have exchanged energies with the skies above.
Jetavanaramaya Dagoba (near the Sacred Bodhi Tree) is in 70 meters tall. It once was 98 meters (321 feet) high and has a diameter of 370 feet at its base. It is regarded by some as the largest stupa in South Asia and the third largest masonry structure in the world after the two largest pyramids in Egypt. Behind the dagoba are the ruins of a monastery that once housed 5,000 monks.
Thuparama Dagoba (north of Ruvanveliseya Dagoba) is the oldest dagoba at Anuradhapura. Constructed under Devananpiya, it is said to house the right collarbone of the Buddha. It originally had a “heap of rice” shape but was restored to its present bell shape in 1840. It is only 19 meters high, Around it are pillars that once supported a roof that covered it,
Mirisavatiya Dagoba (near the Tissa Wewa tank) is an immense stupa built b Dutugamunu after he captured the city. Nearby is the Royal Pleasure Garden. built around large boulders and ponds with reliefs of elephants. The stupa sits on 20 hectares (50 acres) of land. Although the King Kasyapa I and Kasyapa V renovated the structure it for the most part was neglected. What stands today is the renovation done by the cultural Triangle Fund.
See Separate Article PLACES AT ANURADHAPURA
Buddhist Temples in Sri Lanka
Temples are place of worship. They have an open interior that may be entered and in which are displayed one or more images as a focus for worship. There are two main kinds of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka: 1) a vihara, a monastery complex with a shrine that houses a Buddha statue; and 2) a devale, a shrine used in the worship of a Buddhist god, Hindu god or a local Sri Lanka god. In the old days these structure were usually separate. Later many Buddhist vihara were built with devales inside. Some traditional Sinhalese temples includes individual shrines dedicated to Hindu gods. Some of the most important Hindu god’s worshiped by some Sinhalese Buddhists include Vishnu, Murugan, Pathini, Nata, Gambara, Dedimunda, Saraswati, Ganesh, Lakshmi, Shiva and Kali. Many bodhi trees are planted at Sri Lankan temples.
A typical temple in Sri Lanka contains a dagoba (stupa), bodhighara (Bodhi tree shrine) and an image house with images such as Buddha statues that are worshipped. According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka”: “Images for worship had been built inside caves or were placed at the cardinal points of stupas in early times. There are reference to images of Buddha having been deposited in the relic chambers of the large stupas.” In single building image houses “the image is almost always in the Samadhi attitude of meditation. The standing image is in the attitude of blessing, is set in a high image house and is sometimes in the posture of thribanga, standing at ease. The recumbent image or the reclining Buddha is more often found in cave temples due perhaps to the shape of space available in a shallow cave. Such shrines contain a large area of painted surface on the rock ceiling and the exterior wall surface. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
There are also examples of image houses with several images in them or combinations of the seated and the standing image. An image house in Polonnaruva is considered by some to represent the Buddha, the Damma and the Sanga, the thri-ratna. Most image houses were built of stone foundations, brick walls and timber roof. Some remarkable examples of timber and mud image houses set on stone pillars have been built by the craftsmen of the mediaeval period and are still in use in several villages of the central highlands. The temple of the Tooth relic in Kandy is indeed the finest timber shrine room built in the mediaeval period and still maintained in good repair. This temple is the center of a week long festival of dance and celebration in the month of August when a colourful procession parades in the temple square every night.
Some of the oldest temples in Sri Lanka are cave temples. The earliest examples of cave temples are found in Mihintale. A unique feature in these caves was the use of a drip ledge (kataraya) carved along the top edge of the rock ceiling which stopped rain water running into the cave. With time doors, windows and walls of brick or stone were added. The roof and walls were plastered white and finished with decorative paintings, these are evident in the cave temples of Dambulla. Cave complexes of Dambulla, Situlpahuwa, Mulkirigala have significant cave temples. The Kaludiya Pokuna, Mihintale cave temple was constructed with brick walls, granite window openings, and ceilings. The Gal vihara, Polonnaruwa and the cave temples of Dambulla were initially constructed as cave temples, later on the cave temples were converted to image houses. [Source: Wikipedia]
After the sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha was brought to Sri Lanka in the ninth year of the reign of King Kitsirimevan (303-331 B.C.), a temple to keep the Tooth relic was built in Anuradhapura from where the king ruled. Thereafter in each capital of the Sinhalese kings, there was a separate Temple of the Tooth.
Brick shrine with vaulted roof, as seen at Thuparama, Lankatilaka and Tivanka Pilimage, is also considered unique to Sri Lanka. The Thuparama is almost intact today and gives an idea of the manner in which the vaulted roof was created. The principles of the true arch were known to the ancient Sri Lankans, but the horizontal arch was considered a safer method of construction.
Buddhist Temples in Rural Sri Lanka
According to the Sunday Times: Just as much as the paddy field and the tank were of vital importance to the peasants, so was the temple. All the villagers being Buddhists, every village had a temple. It was a familiar sight to see the ‘dagoba’ and the temple surrounded by paddy fields. Within the precincts of the temple were several places of worship. The ‘budu ge’, as the name suggests, had images of the Buddha in seated and reclining positions. The ‘Buddha pooja’ was offered in the image house. The ‘vehera’ or ‘dagoba’ was built to an accepted size and shape and had relics enshrined. [Source: LLRH, Sunday Times, 2008]
“The ‘bodhi’ symbolised the tree under which Prince Siddartha attained Enlightenment. Apart from these places of worship, a temple consisted of the ‘avasaya’, where the monks stayed, a ‘bana maduva’, the preaching hall where the villagers gathered on a Poya day to observe ‘sil’ and listen to ‘bana’ sermons, and a ‘gantara’, a bell fixed on to a tall tower.
“The bell was rung as a signal for the villagers to meet at the temple. It was generally a call from the monk to discuss urgent or important issue affecting him or the village. If there are signs that the alms were getting delayed, the ‘kepakaru’ would ring the bell and indicate that time is up to bring the alms. The ‘bana maduva’ was a simple half-wall structure with short gates on all four side. The temple was considered a sacred place and the villagers treated it with respect and dignity. They would see to it that the youngsters behaved themselves in the temple premises and made sure that they took part in religious activities with decorum.
Bodhi Tree at Anuradhapura
The Bodhi Tree at Anuradhapura is the most sacred site in Sri Lanka. The Sacred Bodhi Tree at Anuradhapura is said to be grown from a branch from the original Bodhi Tree under which Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment in India. The bringing of the branch to Sri Lanka is historic event tied with the introduction of Buddhism to the island. The bodhi tree is now very large and is considered to be the oldest recorded tree in the world. The right branch of the sacred Bodhi Tree is said to have been brought by Arahat nun Sangamitta, sister of Arahat Mahinda and daughter of Emperor Ashoka, in the 3rd century B.C.. The branch was planted in the Royal gardens at Anuradhapura by King Devanampiya Tissa who was ruling Anuradhapura and the island at that time.
An elaborate gateway marks the entrance to the bo tree area. Over the years a number of kings have taken measures to protect it. Several retaining walls have been built around it. Even during occupations by southern Indian Hindu kingdoms the tree was looked after. Today it is taken care of by a special team of botanists appointed by the government. A gilded fence known as the Ran Vet was fairly recently placed around it.
According to ancient chronicles the bringing of the sacred Bodhi tree branch to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitta took place a few months after the arrival of Mahinda. Amidst much rejoicing and ceremony, this tree was planted at Maha Mevuna Uyana. The Bo tree (Pipal – Ficus religiosa) branch was brought by Sanghamitta, as a gift from her father Mauryan Buddhist Indian Emperor Ashoka. It is regarded as the oldest historical tree (i.e. having the longest recorded written history) in the world. It has been protected by an uninterrupted series of Buddhist monks since it was planted. The high terrace on which the tree sits is seven meters (21 feet above the ground) and surrounded by railings. It is one of the most sacred Buddhist relics and one of the most important places in Sri Lanka. The parapat wall around the compound where the bo-tree is planted is about 213 meters (700 feet) in length. This wall was constructed during the reign of King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, to protect the tree from wild elephants. [Source: My Sri Lanka mysrilanka.com ]
Bodhighara: Bodhi Tree Shrines at Sri Lankan Buddhist Temples
Worship of the bodhi tree became an important part of Sri Lankan worship, and a bodhi tree shrine was established in every monastery. According to the Asia Society Museum: Each consists of seated images of the Buddha placed around the tree facing the four cardinal directions. Unlike Indian representations of the Buddha seated under the bodhi tree, in Sri Lankan images, the Buddha holds his hands in the gesture of meditation (dhyana mudra) instead of in the earth-touching gesture (bhumisparsha mudra) that Shakyamuni used to call the earth to witness his right to achieve enlightenment. [Source: Asia Society Museum asiasocietymuseum.org |~| ]
“The Buddha, Gautama (563-BC to 483-BC) found Enlightenment at Buddha-Gaya in South Bihar, seated on a stone-seat ("Vajrasana") under a Bo-tree. Therefore, both the Bo-tree and Vajrasana became objects of worship, not only in Buddha-Gaya, but also in many other places in India and Sri Lanka. Soon after the introduction of Buddhism in Sri Lanka a Bo-sapling from the great Bodhi-tree in India was brought to Sri Lanka by Theri Sanghamitta, the daughter of the Indian Emperor, Ashoka and was planted by King Devanam Piyatissa (250 to 210BC) in the royal garden of the City of Anuradhapura. The Chronicle states that the first "Bodhigara" tree temple, was erected during this time, and since then many kings are said to have built or repaired Bodhigharas.
“The Bodhighara was a structure, designed to house the bodhi-tree (Ficus religiosa). But like the thupaghara or the patimaghara, it could not be entirely covered with a roof, for the Bodhi-tree requires sunshine for its growth. The Bodhighara was designed in a manner as to cover only the area around the tree, leaving an open space in the center. Whether roofed, or enclosed with a railing or wall, "Bo-tree Shrines" were usually terraced on three or more levels, each enclosed by a railing. At the four sides, steps with Makara balustrades at the entrances, with guard-stones, and moonstones were provided.
According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka”: In any contemporary monastery or temple, the Bodhi-tree takes its place both locationally and ritually on the same level as the stupa and the image-house, which together constitute the three principal shrines in the sacred precinct of a temple. The Bodhighara generally contains a large Vajrasana to the east and three smaller altars facing the other directions. All these, display images of the Buddha with flower-altars. As the Bodhighara and Bodhimalaka have the same objects of worship, their religious practices are the same. Although the development of the Bodhighara deviated from the Bo-maluva at a certain stage of its evolution, both continued to develop on parallel lines. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
“The first stage of development of the "Bo-tree Shrine" was an elevated terrace known as Bodhimalaka which was approached by a decorative flight of steps. The next stage of development took the form of an elevated terrace, in which four Buddha images were placed at the four cardinal points, as seen at the Samadhi- Bodhighara at Anuradhapura. The 3rd stage of development is represented by the erection of "railing sites" referred to as the Buddhist railing Temples an elevated terraced, four Buddha images and a fence very similar to that in Buddha-Gaya, in India. The railing was erected to define the ambulatory area around the shrine. The best example of a Bo-tree shrine is seen at Nillakegama. Here one could see all the features of a Bodhighara with doorways, guard-stones, flower-altars and pillars which supported a roof over the ambulatory space. The center was architecturally developed over the years. These include the single seated image house.
Temple of the Tooth
Temple of the Tooth (on the side of the lake in the center of Kandy) is the sacred temple, known locally as Dalada Maligawa, that houses Buddha's tooth, which is said to be an upper left incisor snatched from Buddha's funeral pyre in 543 B.C. The tooth was reportedly brought to Sri Lanka from India in the 4th century A.D. hidden in the hair of an Indian princess and given to the Sri Lankan king, Kithsiri Megawanna, who in turn placed in an edifice built by King Devanampriyatissa.
The Sinhalese kings considered themselves the guardian of the sacred tooth, which was considered the source of their power and venerated to invoke the blessings of the king and his people. The sacred tooth was kept in Anuradhapura for a while and moved around Sri Lanka as the Sinhalese kings changed the location of the Sri Lankan capital until it finally came to rest in the Temple of the Tooth Relic in Kandy during the Kandyan period.
Placed on a site, where an auspicious white tortoise was found, the temple is a white crenelated temple structure with a moat and towers that look like swirls of soft ice cream. The closet that visitors get to the tooth is a view of the golden reliquary that holds the tooth through a glass portal.
A two-story shrine was built next to a lake to house the relic by Sinhalese king, Wimala Dharma Suriya I in 1590, when the relic was taken to Kandy. The current two-story pink structure was built under King Narenda Sinhala in 1687 to 1707 and expanded from 1747 to 1782. The tooth is kept in an inner chamber. The temple is surrounded by a moat. The octagonal tower in the moat was built to house palm-leaf manuscripts. The gilded roof was deed by President Premadasa.
The entrance to the temple features moonstone steps, two stone elephants and five intertwined damsels. Pilgrims from all over Sri Lanka converge on the temple during the lunar month of Esala (July or August) for the massive Perahara festival that honors the tooth. At 6:00am and 4:00pm daily the tooth is venerated with a special ceremony that involves drumming. and sacred chanting.
Viharas in Sri Lanka
Vihara generally refers to a monastery for Buddhist monks. The term evolved into an architectural concept wherein it refers to living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard. A vihara has traditionally contained a central hall, with small cells. Some of the oldest ones were in caves with beds carved from stone in cells. Most have a shrine and stupa. The shrine usually houses a Buddha statue or some other images used in worship. In the old days these structure were usually separate. Later many Buddhist vihara were built with devales inside. Some large sites have several viharas. Some include a chaitya or worship hall nearby.
The vihara was originated to be a shelter for monks when it rains. In 2007, there were around 6,000 Buddhist vihara of various sizes in Sri Lanka with approximately 30,000 monks. According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka”: “Viharas were originally of mud and timber construction. These timber and mud buildings have totally disappeared and are referred to in the texts. The viharas built of stone and brick in later years remain in ruins. Early caves converted, contain walls of stone and brick and are identified by drip ledge inscriptions indicating they are donated to the monks. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
“Soon after the introduction of Buddhism large monastery complexes came to be built in Anuradhapura. Some of these were Universities or seats of learning where monks learned in apprenticeship under very learned teacher monks. Such complexes accommodating several hundred monks needed more buildings of refectories, assembly halls, dwelling houses, toilet facilities and even hospitals and infirmaries. In Sri Lanka we are fortunate in being able to identify all these buildings and their complex layout in several of the ancient sites. Other facilities at these sites included meditation halls, ponds and spouts for bathing and paved paths and stairways. The development of the site as a monastery park was for providing the serenity and quiet required by a monk for study and meditation. Besides the large complexes, the villages, temple was a part of every village and also had the basic requirements for worship and teaching of the Dhamma. These small but well planned buildings continued over the years and their remains go to make up the stone and timber Viharas of the type called the TAMPITA VIHARA or temple on stone pillars. Several hundred of these, one in each village make up an interesting study. The finest of these being Temple complex in Kandy, the Dalada Maligawa.
Kiribath Vihara at Anuradhapura is a ruined monastery that was 10 meters high and had circumference of 130 meters (425 feet). The date of construction and the king who built it is unknown. In close proximity to this are the ruins of an image house. There is controversy whether the Pattamaka Stupa built by King Devanampiyatissa is one and the same. Naka contains a square stupa built of bricks. It is constructed according to an unusual model and is similar to the seven storeyed Satmahal Prasadaya building in Polonnaruwa. Excavations done at Nika Vihara have revealed several clay caskets. Kandy is the home of the two large monasteries of Malwatte and Asgiriya occupied by the two high priests, a continuation of the Maha Vihara concept which originated in Anuradhapura after the introduction of Buddhism.
Meditation houses are found in the forest monasteries in Ritigala and Arankele are unique to Sri Lanka, Each house consist of two raised platforms, linked to each other by a monolithic stone bridge. The outer platform is open to the sky, larger and higher than the inner platform. These meditation houses achieved a very high degree of perfection in their architecture, the design combined square and rectangular shapes and yet maintained symmetry, indicating the architects' sophisticated knowledge of geometry. The stone masonry is also of a very high standard. The basements of these buildings were constructed of monumental blocks of stone, cut to different sizes, carefully dressed and very finely fitted together. The bridge connecting the two platforms was formed out of a single slab of stone. Some such slabs measured 15 feet (5 m) by 13 feet (4 m). The sides have been cut with precision where the joints between the slab and the stone moulding of the platforms are hardly perceptible. [Source: Wikipedia]
Chaitya
A chaitya refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in a temple. In Buddhism it typically refers to a space with a stupa and a rounded apse at the end opposite the entrance, and a high roof with a rounded profile. Technically, the chaitya is the stupa itself, but in practice in often refers to the Indian buildings, the chaitya halls, accompanying a stupa or for small stupa-like monuments. Most early examples of chaitya that survive are Indian rock-cut architecture. Scholars agree that the standard form follows a tradition of free-standing halls made of wood and other plant materials, none of which has survived. [Source: Wikipedia
According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka”: “Buddhists who in the beginning congregated in the park” around the first bodhi tree and stupas “ soon found the necessity for a room and shrine as a symbol of the Buddha. The hall which the Chaitya as its main shrine originated with the rock cut halls of Ajanta containing a Stupa at one end and a hall in front for congregation. This perhaps provided the form for the Vatadage concept in Sri Lanka, further developed over the years. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
The Kantaka Chaitya in Mihintale is a fine example of a small dagoba. It features some of the finest stone carvings and terra cotta figures. They are well preserved to this day. The presence of a vahalkada or frontpiece is another interesting feature in this chaitya. There are carvings of animal figures, pot and foliage and other familiar ornamental motifs. These frontpieces seen in most dagobas project from the base and face the cardinal points. There are two other beautiful ones at Medirigiriya close to Polonnaruwa and Tiriyayi off the Anuradhapura-Trincomalee road. These circular shrines enclosed stupas of smaller size and had wooden pillars right round. Later they were replaced by carved stone pillars. The pillars are arranged in four to two concentric circles, diminishing in size outwards.
Vatadage
The vatadage is essentially a small stupa (dagoba). After the A.D. 4th century, the building of colossal dagobas has virtually ended. Thereafter smaller ones were built using Thuparama in Anuradhapura as a model. This type came to be known as vatadage. The best examples are Thuparama and Lankarama in Anuradhapura, and some in Polonnaruwa.
The “vatadage” is a distinctly Sinhalese architectural feature. It is comprised of a dagoba (stupa), flanked by Buddhist statues and encircled by a row of columns. When they were built the columns supported a wooden roof that has long since disappeared. The vatadage is considered to be one of ancient Sri Lanka's most prolific architectural creations, with its design representing a changing perspective of stupa design.
According to the “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka”: ““The Vatadage literally means a circular relic house. This is a development of a Stupa sheltered by a roof and as expected it is a pillared building around a small Stupa provided with four entrances and four Buddha images placed at the cardinal points. Several examples of these are found in Sri Lanka, the earliest being the ones at Mihintale and Anuradhapura 3rd century BC. These mark the spots connected with the introduction of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Much later and more developed forms are seen at Medirigiriya, 8th Cent. and Plonnaruva 12th Cent., both considered as gems of architectural design. [Source: “The History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka” by L. K. Karunaratne - Architect A.i.a (Sl.), The 1998 International Symposium on Design & Developmeay of Buddhist Architcture Pp.85-96]
Early provincial vatadages were square. The circular form enclosing the dagoba developed later. Polonnaruwa, Medirigiriya and Tiriyaya vatadages still have their circles of slender, graceful pillars. The vatadage roof was of a sophisticated design unique to ancient Sri Lanka, it is a three-tiered conical roof, spanning a height of 12–15 m, without a centre post, and supported by pillars of diminishing height. The weight was taken by a ring beam supported on the inner row of stone columns, the radiating rafters met in a cartwheel-like design. The ornamental qualities of the Polonnaruwa vatadage are highly valued and scholars maintain that the Polonnaruwa vatadage represents the best architectural work of the Polonnaruwa period. In modern times architects have designed and built concrete a circular relic house enclosing a small Stupa in the south of Colombo.
Brazen Palace in Anuradhapura
While the kings built stupas and monasteries for the monks to reside, they also built royal palaces for themselves that were considered marvels of Sinhalese architecture. The palace complexes were within the inner city, protected by high ramparts. History records that the palace of King Parakramabahu the Great had one thousand rooms.
The Great Brazen Palace or Lova Maha Paya shows how the kings (in this case King Dutugemunu) built excellent monasteries for the use of monks and looked after themselves too. It was a quadrangular palace said to one hundred cubits in length and the same in height. A cubit is about half a meter. There were nine storeys, each of them having one hundred apartments. A special hall was erected in the center of the palace and it was supported on golden pillars.
The Brazen Palace — near the Sacred Bodhi Tree at Anuradhapura — had rooms decorated with gold, silver and gemstones, and great hall with an ivory throne. Named after the bronze roof it one possessed, it reportedly was nine stories high and had 900 rooms and accommodated 1,000 monks.. The remains of 1,600 supporting columns are all that remain. They are four meters (12 feet) high and organized in 40 rows of 40 each. The original palace was under King Dutugemunu (161 – 137 B.C.) but was expanded by other kings over the years,
The Brazen Palace is known officially as Lohaprasadaya. Situated between Ruvanveliseya and Sri Mahabodiya, it included a refectory and the uposathagara. (Uposatha house). The simamalake was where the sangha assembled on poya days to recite the formula of the confessional.
Lohaprasada was 400 meters in length. The roof of the main building was covered with tiles made of bronze, this was known as the Brazen Palace. The1600 stone pillars held up the building. It is believed that it took six years for the construction of the palace and the plan was brought from the heavens. The building was completely destroyed during the reign of King Saddhatissa.
Royal Baths in Sri Lanka
Royal baths formed a special architectural feature of the early times. Some of the remains of these show that each bath in Anuradhapura was 20 feet 10 inches square. The inner walls were paved with dressed stone. An underground drain 70 feet long supplied water from Tissawewa. In Polonnaruwa, the royal baths (kumara pokuna) were located within the palace. There were stone slabs in three tiers. The lotus bath was paved with stone slabs resembling the petals of an open lotus. Royal pleasure gardens in Anuradhapura are also fine examples of ancient architecture.
The best examples of royal baths are found at Sigiriya (94 kilometers north of Kandy), a 200-meter-high (650-foot) -high, table-top block of granite topped by a magnificent 1.2-hectare (three-acre) fortress built in the A.D. 5th century by Kasypaya, a fearful king for protection from his half brother after the king murdered his father.
The granite block of Sigiriya rises abruptly from the surrounding flat landscape. The top is 377 meters above sea level. Around the citadel at the top are two moats, that once contained man-eating crocodiles, and three ramparts and 20 hectares of elaborately landscaped gardens with boulders and fountains that still work after 1,500 years. On the west side of the base is symmetrically laid-out water garden. Above it is a boulder garden with flights of stairs that wind in and out between the giant rocks. Among the boulders are caves used by monks since the 3rd century B.C.
Most people enter through the western gate. It is elaborately carved and leads to the water garden, which embraces royal bathing pools, pavilions and small moated islands at the foot of the granite monolith. The water garden and moats have been relatively recently been restored. As of 2002, about half had been restored. The garden features a series of increasingly large elongated pools of water that collect rain and spring water to nourish the gardens. The great Mughal gardens in Lahore and Kashmir would later be built with a similar design.
The monolith rises up from the water gardens. A long set of stairs switchback through the boulder garden up the western face of the monolith and leads to a massive pair of stone lion's paws and the lions’s staircase to the summit. The paws, staircase and the granite block are derived from the story of Vijaya, the legendary founder of the Sinhalese people, who was born form the union of a lion and a princess. Only the restored paws of the lion still exist. Ancient chronicles describe the staircase as one of the citadel’s main features. It is said to have started at the paws and emerged thorough the lion’s mouth at the summit. Based on fragments that remain in the rocks, the crouching lion’s head and shoulders were made form brick mounted on the rock face with a wooden staircase located beside it.
The summit covers 1.6 hectares. At one time there was a great seven-story palace with baths, galleries and a pink throne room. All that remains now are foundations. the most notable feature is 27-x-21-meter pond carved out of rock that is nearly the size of an Olympic-size swimming pool. It may have been used for recreation but more likely was used to collect water in the rainy season. A smooth slab of stone is refereed to as the king’s throne.
Homes in Sri Lanka
A traditional house in Sri Lanka has one or two rooms and its own garden and is separated from other houses. Traditional houses have mud and plaster walls and a thatched roof made of woven palm fronds. Nice homes have glass windows, stucco and/or brick walls and ceramic tile roof. A traditional cadjian (coconut fond) dwelling has a timber frame, walls made of woven coconut fond mats and a coconut fond thatch roof. These structures are easy and cheap to build, breath and are relatively cool in hot weather and need to be rebuilt every three years or so.
According to the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life”: Traditional building materials of mud and thatch are being replaced by cement and tiles. Each house stands in a garden in the midst of coconut, mango, papaya, and other trees. In front of the house is a veranda, where men sit during the day and sleep at night. A single door provides access to the house, where women and children sleep. There are typically two rooms and a kitchen, although sometimes the hearth is a lean-to attached to the back of the house. Most villagers sleep on mats, and only the more affluent have beds and simple wooden tables and chairs. Some households have their own well. Many houses have pit-latrines dug in the garden. [Source: D. O. Lodric,“Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life”, Cengage Learning, 2009 *]
Tamil houses have traditionally been hidden behind natural fences of trees and bushes which also provides natural fertilizer (mainly leaves) for their gardens. The house have traditionally been built of the same materials used to make Sinhalese horses. The gardens often contain mango and coconut trees.
A traditional house in Sri Lanka has one or two rooms and its own garden and is separated from other houses. Traditional houses have mud and plaster walls and a thatched roof made of woven palm fronds. Nice homes have glass windows, stucco and/or brick walls and ceramic tile roof. A traditional cadjian (coconut fond) dwelling has a timber frame, walls made of woven coconut fond mats and a coconut fond thatch roof. These structures are easy and cheap to build, breath and are relatively cool in hot weather and need to be rebuilt every three years or so.
See Separate Articles 1) EVERYDAY LIFE, HOMES, AND URBAN LIFE IN SRI LANKA and 2) RURAL LIFE IN SRI LANKA: HOUSES, WILD ANIMALS, TEMPLES AND RITUALS
Geoffrey Bawa: the Father of Tropical Modernism Architecture
Geoffrey Bawa (1929-2003) was an eccentric Sri Lankan architect known for producing buildings and homes that harmonized with their Asian landscapes. Educated at Cambridge and trained a lawyer,he is known best for the lavish homes and resort hotels he built in Sri Lanka. A citation by the Aga Khan foundation, which gave Bawa a prestigious award, read: “He has broken down the artificial segregation of inside and outside, building and landscape; he has drawn on tradition to create an architecture that is fitting to its place, and he has also used his vast knowledge of the of the modern world to create an architecture that is of its time.”
Bawa's architectural works are featured the traditions, arts, and craft of Sri Lanka. Rajpal Abeynayake wrote in the Nikkei Review: Bawa singlehandedly made Sri Lanka a country for buildings that live and breathe. The father of "tropical modernism" — a school of architecture that can only be fully understood by seeing the maestro's buildings. — died in 2003, aged 83. By then, he had bequeathed to Sri Lanka a design legacy that has been widely recognized as the island state's hottest architectural genre. [Source: Rajpal Abeynayake, Nikkei Review, July 15, 2018]
“The beauty and tropical romance of the Bawa style has become the standard for many architects and designers in Sri Lanka — most notably in the construction of the boutique hotels that are popping up around the island to cater for its burgeoning tourist trade. Bawa's architectural vocabulary and palette of materials have become so accepted, according to the British architect and critic David Robson, an authority on his work, that Sri Lankans have forgotten just how radical they were when he started work in the country in 1957, at the age of 38. But stepping into Bawa's shoes is a tall order, not just because he was 2.13 meters (7 feet) tall. Seen in context, complete with decor, the tropical simplicity and sensuousness of his designs have a way of surprising and astonishing visitors.
Catherine Lebouille, a Bawa buff who is executive director of the Sri Lankan travel agency Mai Globe, notes the care he took to stay in harmony with the surroundings of his creations. It established his image in local eyes as the "God of architecture," she added. Bawa would never hurry a project for the convenience of clients but rather, wanted people to see "God's hand," as another critic puts it.
Geoffrey Bawa Architectural Creations
Famous buildings by Bawa include the Serendib Hotel (1967-70) in Bentota, the Neptune Hotel (1973-76) in Beruwela, Bentota Beach Hotel (1967-69), the Lighthouse in Galle, the Kandalama Hotel in Dambulla, Ruhuna University, and the YMCA at Rotunda Garden. The Triton Hotel in Ahungalla features a secluded pool shaded by coconut trees that seems to flow into the lobby. His highest profile job was the Parliament building at Sri Jayawardanapura, Kotte The Bentota Beach Hotel was very beautiful but another architect ruined it, Bawa fans say.
Rajpal Abeynayake wrote in the Nikkei Review; Take the Jetwing Lighthouse in Galle. The "tropicality" of the structure, owned by Jetwing Hotels, a Sri Lankan hotel chain, conjures images of ships, vistas, and, for some people, a sense of being marooned on a tropical island. Bawa is said to have told the hotel's owners that guests should feel as though they were experiencing the monsoon rains. To achieve this effect, the hotel's spacious viewing pavilion yawns out to sea, just a meter or so above the waves breaking on the rocks below. [Source: Rajpal Abeynayake, Nikkei Review, July 15, 2018]
In typical Bawa style, everything about the Jetwing Lighthouse is carefully designed, down to the heavy, polished wooden doors that glide on massive brass rollers. "Bawa's overall effect is one of focused calm and sanctity achieved through careful manipulation of space, juxtaposition of simple materials and the careful control of light and shade," Robson wrote. Discussing another Bawa creation, a chapel in Bandarawela, Robson noted: "He built [it] almost entirely from materials found nearby or manufactured in the vicinity, and [it] seems to grow out of the ground, a building that has been 'unearthed' rather than designed."
The Heritance Kandalama, constructed in the early 1990s, is built into a rocky outcrop in Dambulla, covered by verdant tropical forests that make it almost invisible except at very close quarters, reflecting the impact of public protests about its proximity to ancient temple sites. As Archtech magazine noted in a review, Bawa was able to subdue the outcry with a subtle design that highlights the drama of the cliff-side location and its breathtaking views. The monks and others who had protested were surprised that a five-star hotel could blend so seamlessly with its surroundings that it effectively became invisible.
David Robson's wrote in “Geoffrey Bawa: The Compete Works that the house for Osmun and Ena de Silva (1960-62) in Alfred Place, Colombo “ remains one of Bawa's most potent and beautiful designs. At the time of its conception the urban courtyard house was part of a forgotten tradition found only in old Dutch and Moor streets if Hultsdorf, Galle and Matara (all in Sri Lanka). Coming at a time of growing urban congestion, this house more than any other was responsible for changing the perceptions of a generation of architects and ultimately of the entire urban population of Ceylon," Robson wrote. [Source: Philip Golingai in Colombo, Asia News Network, January 2008]
Another must-see Bawa building is the chapel for the Good Shepherd Convent (1961-62) in Bandarawela. The chapel, according to Robson, was the most impressive space for Christian worship in Sri Lanka. “The overall effect is one of focused calm and sanctity achieved through careful manipulation of space, juxtaposition of simple materials and the careful control of light and shade," he wrote. "It was built almost entirely from materials found nearby or manufactured in the vicinity, and seems to grow out of the ground, a building that has been 'unearthed' rather than designed."
The Kandalama Hotel is built on the side of a rock. In 1991, Aitken Spence, a Sri Lankan conglomerate, commissioned Bawa to build a hotel that faced the ancient rock at Sigiriya, which is one of the country's ancient cities. Bawa, however, rejected the site, suggesting instead a huge rocky outcrop in nearby Kandalama. The result of the architect's design was a masterpiece. "The architecture is stark and understated, emphasizing the idea that this is not a building to look at, but a building to look from, like a giant belvedere," Robson explained.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Sri Lanka Tourism (srilanka.travel), Government of Sri Lanka (www.gov.lk), The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Wikipedia and various books, websites and other publications.
Last updated February 2022