GOVERNMENT OF BHUTAN
Bhutan is constitutional monarchy. It is governed under the constitution of 2008.The hereditary monarch, the Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King), is head of state. He used to be an absolute monarch but now is more of a ceremonial ruler although his views carry a lot of weight.The government is headed by a prime minister. He is generally the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament. The national Parliament was established in 2008, replacing a unicameral National Assembly. The parliament today is made up of two houses: 1) the upper house, the National Council, with 20 elected members and 5 members nominated by the monarch; 2) the lower house, the National Assembly, with 47 members, all of whom are popularly elected. [Source: Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed, Columbia University Press; CIA World Factbook, 2020]
Bhutan was an absolute monarchy. It was led by a king who was assisted by an advisory council appointed by the king.The Buddhist community and government of Bhutan have traditionally been inseparable and intertwined. The central religious body — a group of monks — is overseen by pelons, or masters, who are generally senior lamas. One of its main decision-making bodies is a central monastic assembly set up on the Tibetan model. In regards to some issues, policy has been influenced by India. Bhutan was one of only two absolute monarchies left in Asia. The other is in Brunei.
Administratively, Bhutan is divided into 20 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Dagana, Gasa, Haa, Lhuentse, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatshel, Punakha, Samdrup Jongkhar, Samtse, Sarpang, Thimphu, Trashigang, Trashi Yangtse, Trongsa, Tsirang, Wangdue Phodrang, Zhemgang. Before Bhutan was divided into 18 districts. For the most part each dzongkhag with its own dialect. Most districts are centered around fertile valleys and divided from one other by mountain ranges. [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020 =]
Independence: 17 December 1907 (became a unified kingdom under its first hereditary king); 8 August 1949 (Treaty of Friendship with India maintains Bhutanese independence) Capital: name: Thimphu. =
Citizenship: citizenship by birth: no
citizenship by descent only: the father must be a citizen of Bhutan
dual citizenship recognized: no
residency requirement for naturalization: 10 years =
Flag and Symbols of Bhutan
The National symbol of Bhutan is the thunder dragon (Druk). Its white color stands for purity and the jewels in its claws symbolize wealth. The king of Bhutan is known as Druk Gyalpo. The national colors are orange and yellow, with orange is associated with Buddhism and yellow denoting the ruling dynasty.
Flag: The Bhutanese flag is divided diagonally from the lower hoist-side corner. The upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange. Centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side. The dragon — the Druk (Thunder Dragon) — is the emblem of the nation, its white color symbolizing purity and the jewels in its claws representing wealth. The background colors indicate spiritual and secular powers within Bhutan: the orange is associated with Buddhism, while the yellow denoting the royal family. [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]
The Bhutanese flag has been used for more than a century. The dragon, gold color and triangles are believed to have been borrowed from the Chinese imperial flag. The egg-like jewels in the dragon’s claws can represent the universe, wealth and perfection of Bhutan. The golden yellow half signifies the secular power and authority of the king while the lower saffron-orange symbolizes the practice of religion and the power of Buddhism, manifested in the tradition of Drukpa Kagyu.
National anthem: name: "Druk tsendhen" (The Thunder Dragon Kingdom) with lyrics by Gyaldun Dasho Thinley Dorji and music: by Aku Tongmi. It was adopted 1953. The beginning goes:
"In the Thunder Dragon Kingdom, adorned with sandalwood,
the protector who guards the teachings of the dual system;
he, the precious and glorious ruler, causes dominion to spread while his unchanging person abides in constancy,
as the doctrine of the Buddha flourishes, may the sun of peace and happiness shine on the people."
...the last two lines of the national anthem go:
"May dharma, the teaching of the Buddha, flourish
May the sun of happiness and peace shine on the people."
[Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020; “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”, Thomson Gale, 2007]
The national emblem is a circle with two double diamond thunderbolts situated above a lotus, topped by a jewel, and surrounded by two dragons. The lotus signifies purity. The thunderbolts symbolize harmony between secular and religious power. The jewel represents sovereign power. The two dragons (male and female) represent Druk-Yul ("Land of the Thunder Dragon") the original name of Bhutan. [Source: “Countries and Their Cultures”, Gale Group Inc., 2001; [Source: Tourism Council of Bhutan, tourism.gov.bt]]
The national sport is the Archery (Dha). The bow and arrow play a significant role in many Bhutanese myths and legends; images of the gods holding a bow and arrows are considered especially favorable. Archery was declared the national sport in 1971 when Bhutan became a member of the United Nations. Archery is played during religious and secular public holidays in Bhutan, local festivals (tsechu), between public ministries and departments, and between the dzongkhag and the regional teams. [Source: Tourism Council of Bhutan, tourism.gov.bt]
National Bird is the raven. It adorns the royal crown. The raven represents the deity Gonpo Jarodongchen (raven headed Mahakala), one of the chief guardian deities of Bhutan. The national animal is the Takin (Burdorcastaxicolor) that is associated with religious history and mythology. It is a very rare mammal with a thick neck and short muscular legs. It lives in groups and is found above 4000 meters on the north-western and far north eastern parts of the country. They feed on bamboo. The adult Takin can weigh over 200 kilograms.
The national flower ithe blue a poppy. It is a delicate blue or purple tinged blossom with a white filament. The plant grows to a height of one meter, and is found above the tree line (3500-4500 meters) on rocky mountain terrain. The Bhutanese people like it because it is straight and strong and can grow even in inhospitable soil. It was discovered in 1933 by a British Botanist, George Sherriff in a remote part of Sakteng in eastern Bhutan. The national tree is the cypress. Cypresses are found in abundance and one may notice large cypresses near temples and monasteries. This tree is found in the temperate climate zone, between 1800 and 3500 meters. Its capacity to survive on rugged harsh terrain is compared to bravery and simplicity.
History of Government in Bhutan
The political system of Bhutan has evolved a monarchy to a constitutional monarchy over time together while trying to stay true to its tradition and culture. It has developed from a fragmented and a disoriented rule of the different regions by local chieftains, lords and clans into the parliamentary democracy we have in place today. The first move towards a systematic scheme of governance came in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung Nawang Namgyal from Tibet. He introduced the dual system of governance with the Je Khenpo as the spiritual head of the nation and the Desis, as the head of the temporal aspects. [Source: Tourism Council of Bhutan, tourism.gov.bt]
But a major breakthrough came about in 1907 when the people unanimously enthroned Ugyen Wangchuck as the fist hereditary King of Bhutan. He was the man who had proven his mettle by banding together the different Dzongpons and Penlops (governors of fortress), ending centuries of strife and bringing much needed stability and peace to the country. Since then, the country has been ruled by successive monarchs of the Wangchuck dynasty.
1953, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck instituted a constitutional monarchy and created a National Assembly, or tshogdu, with 151 members that met twice a year. All Bhutanese citizens 25 years or older were eligible to run for the Assembly. The representatives served three-year term. The move was taken by Jigme Dorji Wangchuck — the Third King of Bhutan — to ensure a more democratic governance of the country. Every gewog (subdistricts) has an elected member representing it in the National assembly. It became a platform where the people’s representatives enacted laws and discussed issues of national importance.
In 1963, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the Royal Advisory Council (Lodoe Tshogde), which was responsible for advising the king on governmental matters and regulating the policies of the National Assembly. The Royal Advisory Council served as a link between the king, council of ministers and the people was another move towards democratization. It also advised the king and the council of ministers on important issues and ensured that projects were implemented successfully. In 1968, a Council of Ministers was formed and given the authority to implement government policy. The Bhutanese government did not allow the formation of political parties until many years after this.
The institution of Dzongkhag Yargay Tshogdu (District Development Assembly) was created in 1981 and Gewog Yargay Tshogchung (County Development Assembly) was formed in 1991 by the Fourth King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, further move towards decentralization. But the devolution of the power of the King in 1998 to the cabinet ministers was the highest form of decentralization. The King, thereafter, began to serve as the Head of the State while the government was managed by the Prime Minister. See History of the Bhutanese Monarchy Below.
In 2002, the election laws were changed so that each citizen over the age of 21 could vote by secret ballot for a representative to the National Assembly (Tshongdu); previously, only one vote per family was allowed. The Tshongdu at that time was composed of about 150 members, including some appointed from the Monk Body as well as some senior government representatives. They in turn elect the Council of Ministers. [Source: Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook 2009, Gale]
In November 2001, on the advice of the Fourth King of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, a committee chaired by the Chief Justice of Bhutan, was formed to draft the constitution of Bhutan. The constitution was launched in 2008 and with it a parliamentary democracy introduced. The progression from Hereditary Monarchy to that of a Parliamentary Democracy has been a carefully managed process that culminated in 2008 when Bhutan held its first elections country wide. The Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) won the first election in 2008, holding 43 of 45 seats in the legislature (Druk Phunsum Tshogpa). The party’s leader, Lyonchen Jigme Y Thinle, was the prime minister from the 2008 to 2013. The People’s Democratic Party (DPT) won the election in 2013. That party’s leader, Tshering Tobgay, served as prime minister from of the new government.
Democracy in Bhutan
Democracy Index score: 5.71, ranking 84th out of 167 countries (compared to Norway, ranked first with a score of 9.87 and North Korean ranked last with a score of 1.08). Bhutan is classified as a hybrid regime, which is lower than a flawed democracy or a full democracy. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped in five different categories, measuring pluralism, civil liberties and political culture. [Source: Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Wikipedia Wikipedia ]
Bhutan adopted democracy quite late. After 100 years of absolute monarchy, it was finally declared a constitutional monarchy in 2008 and held its first ever general election the same year The country until then had no written constitution and the monarch was the supreme authority.
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, Bhutan’s fourth king, began the process of democratizing Bhutan when he gave up some of his absolute powers in 1998. In March 2005, he unveiled the government's new draft constitution, which introduced major democratic reforms. In December 2006 he abdicated the throne to his son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, in order to give him experience as head of state before the democratic transition. The country’s first political parties were allowed to form in 2007. The constitution was put into effect in 2008. The first general election, in 2008, was contested by only two political parties, the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) led by Sangay Negdrup and the Druk Phuntshum Tshogpa (DPT) led by Jigme Y. Thinley, both of whom had served as Prime Ministers under the monarch. The first general election was held in 2008. Only two parties took part, and the royalty-linked Bhutan Peace and Prosperity Party (DPT) won. In second election, in 2013, opposition People's Democratic Party (PDP) won.
Brook Larmer wrote in National Geographic: “Never before, say Bhutanese officials, has a beloved monarch voluntarily abdicated his throne to give power to the people. But in 2006 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck did just that, setting up an unusual convergence of events in 2008: a coronation (the fourth king ceremoniously hands over the raven crown to his 28-year-old son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who will serve as a constitutional monarch); a centennial celebration (the monarchy’s hundredth birthday was in 2007, but a royal astrologer deemed this year more auspicious); and, most important, the formation by this summer of the country’s first democratic government. [Source: Brook Larmer, National Geographic, March 2008]
“The strongest voice for reforming the monarchy, ironically, has been the king’s. What would happen, he has argued, if Bhutan fell into the hands of an evil or incompetent ruler? He won the argument — as kings often do — but his stepchild, democracy, has had a few wobbly first steps. Even fielding viable candidates has been a challenge, owing in part to the king’s insistence that all aspirants to national office be university graduates — this in a country where less than 2 percent of the people have bachelor’s degrees. Nevertheless, last summer two top government ministers — Jigme Y. Thinley and Sangay Ngedup — resigned their posts to lead opposing parties into the elections.
Bhujel Dhan Kumar wrote in the South Asia Journal: “The first democratically elected government was formed by the DPT in July 2008 after its landslide victory with forty-five out of forty seven seats in the parliament. The country felt quite optimistic when Jigme Y. Thinley became its first democratic prime minister as he is considered an experienced man who had served the country in various capacities, including as foreign minister, home minister and prime minister under the absolute monarchy that preceded the election. Under the new government, the country saw numerous changes and developments but the government was not free from errors. [Source: Democracy in Bhutan: A Critical Assessment by Bhujel Dhan Kumar, South Asia Journal, July 8, 2015]
“The very first democratically elected government... completed its tenure on a controversial note. The government at times has shown an aggressive attitude toward criticism, but it ultimately learned to live with some of it. The autocratic behavior of the government is linked to the system followed during the monarchy that preceded it. The constitutional bodies and agencies have played their roles in upholding the democratic institutions and democratic values. Accordingly the media emerged strong and has been able to provide a greater platform for citizens to speak out. At times there have been clashes and divergent views between the democratic constitutional bodies but it has only made them become stronger in their functions. On the whole, democracy in Bhutan has been satisfactory because it has been able to tackle corruption issues that had occurred under absolute monarchy and would have never come to light if Bhutan was still an absolute monarchy where people in power had the ultimate authority. Government has learnt to be more tolerant with time and accept public criticism, although reluctantly. Lastly it is commendable that the opposition has done the hardest job in the first ever democratic governance in the country. Bhutanese democracy is still in its infancy and there is still a lot to achieve and strive for. The people have to still wait and see what awaits them in the next five years from a new government.”
See Separate Article DEMOCRACY IN BHUTAN: DOUBTS, GRADUAL STEPS, FIRST ELECTIONS AND A LINGERING MONARCHY
Tashichhodzong and the Parliament Building of Bhutan
Tashichhodzong (Fortress of the Glorious Religion) served as the year-round central government complex in Thimphu. It is a stone-and-timber structure, has thick whitewashed walls, seven towers covered with red roofs, and a series of interior courtyards. The entire structure is richly ornamented. The current Tashichhodzong complex, which has more than 100 rooms, was completed in 1969 after seven years of construction on the site of an older dzong of the same name. Originally built in the twelfth century, the Tashichhodzong had been rebuilt in the eighteenth century and required the 1962-69 reconstruction because of damage over the centuries from fires and earthquakes. It also was the residence of the spiritual leader of Bhutan, the Je Khenpo, during the summer. [Source: Andrea Matles Savada, Library of Congress, 1991 *]
Tashichhondzong houses all the national ministries and government office. It used to house the National Assembly, the legislature when Bhutan was a monarchy. The current Parliament of Bhutan (Dzongkha) is housed into its own Parliament building. Tashichhondzong also contains the National Archives, King Wangchuck's ornate Throne Room, the summer residence of the Buddhist hierarchy and highest ranking lama, and a monastery with a thousand monks.
The current Parliament of Bhutan (Dzongkha) is housed in the Parliament building. The Bhutanese legislature is made up of an upper house, the National Council and a lower house, the National Assembly. It replaced the unicameral Tshogdu in 2007. The Parliament building houses the National Assembly hall and its secretariat. The Assembly sessions are held twice a year.
Monarchy of Bhutan
The king of Bhutan is officially known as the Druk Yalpo ("Dragon King"). His other titles include Supreme Protector Of The People, The Great Elected One and The Upholder Of The Law. A central part of the king’s coronation ceremony is when he places a sacred scarf from around the neck of the mummified body of Zhabdung Ngawang Namgyal kept enshrined in Machey Lhakhang, a temple in Punakha District in Punakha. Ngawang Namgyal died in 1616 and is regarded as the founder of Bhutan.
The king is responsible for addressing the nation, representing the country to foreign leaders, and nominating some members to government posts. The king’s chief advisers are the je khenpo, who represents the interests of the nation’s Buddhist monks and the religious community.
The Bhutanese king wears a yellow scarf as a symbol of his authority. In the old day, people refrained from looking the king directly in the eye used to prostrate themselves nine time whenever they were in his presence. These customs were dispensed with long ago but many Bhutanese still have of portrait of the king on the Buddhist altars in their home and say they will do whatever he tells them to do. One farmer told the Los Angeles Times, "he is more than a god. When you see the king, you feel something you have never felt." Another villager told the Washington Post, “His Majesty is nice to all people; I am happy to have a king like him."
According to Associated Press, “The monarchy has been at the heart of Bhutan's idiosyncratic recent history, at times imposing strict laws to maintain traditional medieval ways of life and at other times prodding a reluctant nation toward change. Most Bhutanese believe it is the kings who have allowed the small nation of some 700,000 people to survive with their culture and sovereignty intact while sandwiched between 1.1 billion Indians to the south and 1.3 billion Chinese to the north. “We have enjoyed progress, sustained peace, security and growth. These are all attributed to the great kings, benevolent kings, selfless kings that Bhutan has had," Prime Minister Jigme Thinley, the the country's first elected prime minister said. [Source: Gavin Rabinowitz, Associated Press, November 6, 2008]
Brook Larmer wrote in National Geographic: “Reverence for royalty runs deep in Bhutan, and few feel it more keenly than a woman named Peldon. She has lived her 41 years in the shadow of the royal family’s ancestral home, Dungkhar, a simple timbered house set in a remote northeastern valley encircled by snow-capped peaks. Peldon, who displays eight poster-size photographs of the kings in her home, has seen the monarchy’s benefits firsthand. Three years ago a road through the mountains materialized, cutting the trip to the nearest town from two days to two hours. Electricity arrived too, enabling Peldon to attend evening literacy classes and to weave kiras late into the night. “Night has turned into day,” she says, “and we owe it all to His Majesty the King.” [Source: Brook Larmer, National Geographic, March 2008]
Now that Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy, the monarchy, according to Reuters, “is seen as helping stabilize a fragile democracy wedged between India and China in a conflict-ridden region.” Alastair Lawson of the BBC wrote: Monarchs in Bhutan have always been revered — unlike in neighbouring Nepal where the king was unceremoniously deposed in 2008. But the monarchy is not beyond reproach. Gardiner Harris wrote in the New York Times: “Bhutan’s royal family is revered, and criticism of royalty remains unthinkable. But the national news media are lively, and the country’s many and growing democratic and educational institutions have made Bhutan the darling of development and nongovernmental funding organizations. “Bhutan is an exceptional success story,” said Sekhar Bonu of the Asian Development Bank. “It’s a ray of hope in South Asia, and it sets a new benchmark when we talk to other countries.” [Source: Alastair Lawson, BBC News, October 13, 2011; Alistair Scrutton, Reuters, October 13, 2011; Gardiner Harris, New York Times, October 4, 2013]
History of the Bhutanese Monarchy
The hereditary monarchy of Bhutan was established in 1907 after 300 years of dual theocratic-civil government. The Druk Gyalpo — the king — is both head of state and head of government. In the process of coming to power, the first Druk Gyalpo, Ugyen Wangchuck, who reigned from 1907 to 1926, unified the nation, established friendly relations with Britain, and set his dynasty's political agenda.
Bhutan was ruled or overseen by four other hereditary monarchs. The first four were Ugyen Wangchuck, (reigned 1907-1926), Jigme Wangchuck (1926-52), Jigme Dorji Wangchuck (1952-72), and Jigme Singye Wangchuck (since 1972). The current king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck (since 2006) is considered a constitutional monarch rather than an absolute monarch like his predecessors. December 17, the anniversary of the day Ugyen Wangchuck became the first hereditary monarch in 1907, is Bhutan's National Day.
Established as an absolute monarchy in 1907, Bhutan first moved toward a constitutional monarchy in 1953 with the foundation of its National Assembly. In 1963 the monarch's title was changed from "His Highness" to "His Majesty the Druk Gyalpo" in a move to assert a distinct Bhutanese identity. The Druk Gyalpo retained veto power over actions of the National Assembly until 1969 when the National Assembly, following his 1968 decree, became the kingdom's sovereign institution. After 1969, the National Assembly could remove the Druk Gyalpo the through a no-confidence vote, and he no longer had veto power. To secure the Wangchuck Dynasty, however, should the Druk Gyalpo be dethroned through a no-confidence vote, the Wangchuck family member next in line of succession would automatically take the throne. Also beginning in 1969, at the insistence of the Druk Gyalpo a "democratic monarchy" was to be determined through triennial votes of confidence in the Druk Gyalpo's rule.
In 1998, Bhutan moved closer to becoming a true constitutional monarchy when King Jigme Singye Wangchuk announced ambitious political reforms. He gave up his role as head of government and assigned full executive powers to a cabinet consisting of ministers and advisors to be elected by the National Assembly (many of which were effectively chosen by the king). The Council of Ministers, a group within the cabinet, elected one of its members serve a one-year term as chairman — later prime minister — on a rotational basis. This was the head of government. Another of the reforms, was a provision that monarch would have to abdicate in favor of his hereditary successor if two thirds of the members of the National Assembly voted him out. [Source: “Countries and Their Cultures”, Gale Group Inc., 2001]
Bhutan’s Government When It Was a Monarchy
Until 2008 Bhutan was an absolute monarchy, ruled by a hereditary king, the "Druk Gyalpo," who governed with the aid of a Royal Cabinet and a National Assembly (the Tshogdu). According to the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”: In the past, the king appointed members to a Royal Advisory Council and to a Council of Ministers. Following the political reforms of 1998, however, these two councils were combined to form the cabinet. This body consists of six ministers elected by the National Assembly, six advisors also elected by the National Assembly, a member nominated by the king, and two representatives of the clergy. [Source:“Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”, Thomson Gale, 2007 =|=]
“The unicameral National Assembly (established in 1953), known as the Tshogdu, consists of 154 members. Of these, 37 are appointed by the king to represent government and other secular interests; 105 are elected to threeyear terms by groups of village headmen, who are, in turn, elected by a onefamily, one-vote system; and the remaining 12 are chosen by the lamas acting in concert. The Tshogdu meets twice a year at Thimphu, the capital (previously known as Punakha). Candidates file their own nominations.
The assembly is charged with addressing the king on matters of national importance. It also enacts laws and approves senior government appointments. A simple majority is needed to pass a measure and is conducted by secret ballot. While the king may not veto legislation, he may return bills for further consideration; the king generally has enough influence to persuade the assembly to approve legislation he considers important or to withdraw proposals which he opposes. Since 1969, it has become a more active, independent influence on government policy through its power to overrule bills proposed by the king or his advisors. =|=
Bhutan's monarchy was “justified on the grounds of maintaining traditional values and national identity by the country's ruling elite. But it was criticized both domestically and internationally for corruption, discrimination and other problems The U.S.-based political liberties and civil Freedom House classified Bhutan in 2000 as "Not Free" based on a lack of democratic representation and mistreatment of critics of the regime. In 2000, Amnesty International said that members of in Nepali-speaking communities faced police discrimination when attempting to get permission to open a bank account, to travel abroad for training or work, or to send their children to school. [Source: “Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies”, The Gale Group Inc., 2002 <=>]
Government Structure in Bhutan
Government branches: 1) Executive — Prime Minister (head of government, the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament), Council of Ministers, King or Druk Gyalpo (chief of state), Royal Advisory Council (together they make the Cabinet or Lhengye Zhungtsho); 2) Advisory — Monastic Order (or Monk Body-Dratshang); 3) Legislative — National Assembly (Tshogdu); 4) Judicial — High Court (Thrimkhang Gogma), District Courts, and local area arbitration.
The hereditary monarch, the Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King), is head of state. He used to be an absolute monarch but now is more of a ceremonial ruler although his views carry a lot of weight. The government is headed by a prime minister.
Under the constitution put into effect in 2005, governmental power is jointly vested in the legislature and the executive branch, which consists of the prime minister and the cabinet. Bhutan is divided into 20 administrative districts.The national Parliament was established in 2008, replacing a unicameral National Assembly. The parliament today is made up of two houses. The upper house, the National Council, has 20 elected members and 5 members nominated by the monarch. The lower house, the National Assembly, has 47 members, all of whom are popularly elected. [Source: Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed, Columbia University Press; CIA World Factbook, 2020]
Bhutan functioned as a limited monarchy after 1969. The king served as the chief of state and head of government. There was a National Assembly, known as the Tsongdu, with 154 members. It met twice a year at Thimphu, the capital. The king could be removed at any time by a two-thirds vote of the National Assembly. Some of the representatives in the Tsongdu were appointed directly by the monarch, with the advice of the prime minister; some were appointed to represent the state’s religious communities; and some were elected by popular vote bu there were no political parties. Following political reforms in 1998, the Royal Advisory Council and a Council of Ministers were combined to form a cabinet. [Source: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2007]
“The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, collectively referred to as the Royal Court of Justice. The National Judicial Commission, with the approval of the monarch, appoints justices for national and regional courts. Commission members are appointed by the legislature with approval of the executive branch. The Bhutanese legal system is based on Buddhist law; the penal code was revised in 2004. [Source: “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008]
The spiritual head of Bhutan, the Je Khempo is the only person other than the king who is allowed to wears the yellow scarf. In the case of the Je Khempo the scarf represents his authority over all religious institutions. Nominated by monastic leaders — mainly senior Tibetan Buddhist lamas — and appointed by the king, the Je Khempo and the the Monk Body is involved in advising the government on many levels. [Source: Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook 2009, Gale]
Constitution of Bhutan
Bhutan’s first constitution was drafted between November 2001 and March 2005, ratified on July 18, 2008. Before that governing documents were various royal decrees; Amendments are : proposed as a motion by simple majority vote in a joint session of Parliament; passage requires at least a three-fourths majority vote in a joint session of the next Parliament and assent by the king [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck (reigned 1972-2006) unveiled the draft of Bhutan's first constitution, which introduced major democratic reforms. He researched the constitutions of more than 50 nations, seeking comments from the public and consulted with the 20 Dzongkhags (Bhutan’s administrative and judicial districts). Two years after the King’s reign ended and in accordance to his wishes, the Constitution was enacted in 2008 and elections were held in the same year, giving birth to a new system of governance. The draft for a first constitution for Bhutan was debated in the country's 20 districts before being officially presented in March 2005. As part of his reforms, the king introduced legislation in a monarch would have to abdicate in favor of his hereditary successor if the National Assembly supported a vote of no-confidence against him by a two-thirds majority. [Source: drukasia.com]
At the time the constitution was enacted, Reuters reported: Bhutan’s parliament endorsed the country’s first constitution formally turning the former absolute monarchy into a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy. The 27-year-old king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, signed the first copy of the constitution, using a wooden pen dipped in golden ink inside a 17th century fortress after parliament had ratified it. His father, Bhutan’s fourth King, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, not only surrendered power without a struggle, but actually imposed democracy against the will of many of his subjects. The king’s father, ministers and lawmakers looked on as he endorsed the new document. Colourfully dressed monks chanted prayers in a ceremony shown live on national television. “On this day of destiny, in the blessed land of Pelden Drukpa (glorious Bhutan) we, a fortunate people and king, hereby resolve to bring into effect the root and foundation — the very source — of all law in our nation,” the fifth king said. “This is the people’s constitution.” [Source: Reuters, July 18, 2008]
The Royal Government, prompted by the King, released a draft constitution in March 2005. The King and Crown Prince conducted consultations on the constitution in all 20 dzongkhag (districts) in 2005 and 2006. Bhutan will adopt the constitution in early 2008.
Bhutan did not have a written constitution or organic laws for the first 100 years of its existence — until 2008. The 1907 document submitted by the monastic and government leaders was an agreement only to establish an absolute hereditary monarchy. Bhutan's only legal or constitutional basis is the 1953 royal decree for the Constitution of the National Assembly. The 1953 constitution set forth eighteen succinct "rules" for the procedures of the National Assembly and the conduct of its members. The May 1968 revision reiterated and elucidated some of the eighteen rules but revised others. Beginning in 1969, the powers of the speaker of the National Assembly were strengthened, and the Druk Gyalpo's veto power was eliminated. [Source: Andrea Matles Savada, Library of Congress, 1991 *]
Head of Government in Bhutan
. The government is headed by a prime minister. He is generally the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament. The hereditary monarch, the Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King), is head of state. He used to be an absolute monarch but now is more of a ceremonial ruler although his views carry a lot of weight.
Executive branch: Head of government: Prime Minister Lotay Tshering (since November 2018); chief of state: King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck (since December 2006), King Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicated the throne in December 2006 to his son
Under the constitution put into effect in 2008, the monarch serves as head of state while governmental power is jointly vested in the legislature and the executive branch, which consists of the prime minister and the cabinet. Cabinet ministers are confirmed by the legislature. The prime minister and the cabinet are responsible for running the government and making policy. They handle all executive functions, including foreign policy, creation of budgets and legislative proposals, and administration of government policies. The king is responsible for addressing the nation, representing the country to foreign leaders, and nominating members to government posts. The king’s chief advisers are the je khenpo , who represents the interests of the nation’s Buddhist monks and the religious community. [Source: “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008
The king governed with the help of the Royal Cabinet and a National Assembly (the Tsongdu). For a long time the king appointed members to a Royal Advisory Council and to a Council of Ministers. Following the political reforms of 1998, however, these two councils were combined to form the cabinet, consisting of six ministers elected by the National Assembly, six advisors also elected by the National Assembly, a member nominated by the king, and two representatives of the clergy. [Source: “Countries and Their Cultures”, Gale Group Inc., 2001]
Executive Branch Under the Monarchy
At the apex of the executive branch when Bhutan was an monarchy was the Druk Gyalpo (king), who was both head of state and head of the government. Responsible to him were two advisory and executive organizations: the Royal Advisory Council and the Council of Ministers. There also was the Royal Secretariat, which served as an intermediary between the Druk Gyalpo and the Council of Ministers. [Source: Andrea Matles Savada, Library of Congress, 1991 *]
The Royal Advisory Council was mentioned in the 1953 constitution of the National Assembly (members of the council were concurrently members of the National Assembly), but it took on greater importance in 1965 when the Druk Gyalpo installed representatives elected by the monastic bodies and the National Assembly. In 1989 the council's membership included a representative of the government, two representatives of the monasteries, six regional representatives, and a chairperson, all for five-year terms. The chairperson and the government representative were appointed by the Druk Gyalpo; the two monks represent the central and district monastic bodies. Monk representatives, according to 1979 regulations for council membership, were required to be literate and "highly knowledgeable about the Drukpa Kargyupa religion." Monk nominees were subject to the approval of the speaker of the National Assembly. The regional representatives were elected by the National Assembly from a list endorsed by village assemblies. Representing the southeastern, southwestern, western, eastern, central, and the Thimphu-Paro-Ha regions, they were required to be literate, knowledgeable about Bhutanese traditional culture and customs with "some knowledge of modern customs and etiquette," "well-behaved and able to speak well," "able to shoulder responsibility, and far-sighted." As the principal consulting body to the Druk Gyalpo, the Royal Advisory Council was a key state organization and interacts most directly with the National Assembly.
Chaired by the Druk Gyalpo, the Council of Ministers was established in 1968 with the approval of the National Assembly. In 1991 it comprised seven ministers and the Druk Gyalpo's representative in each ministry (agriculture; communications; finance; foreign affairs; home affairs; social services; and trade, industry, and tourism). The largest ministry by far was the Ministry of Social Services, which ran the nation's education and health systems and included nearly 26 percent of all civil service employees. Two of the ministers in 1990 — the minister of finance (Ashi Sonam Chhoden Wangchuck) and the minister of home affairs (Dasho Namgyal Wangchuck) — were members of the royal family.
Until the 1960s, the Royal Secretariat played a major role in government affairs. The key officials of the Royal Secretariat were the Druk Gyalpo's representative in the Royal Bhutan Army, the royal chief secretary, and the royal finance secretary. After the establishment of the Council of Ministers and subsequent shift of administrative and financial matters out of the palace, however, the Royal Secretariat's day-to-day role diminished in importance. Relations between the two bodies had been described as cordial, nevertheless, and ministers usually were selected from among Royal Secretariat personnel.
In the mid 2000s, members of the Council of Ministers or Lhengye Zhungtshog were nominated by the monarch in consultation with the prime minister and approved by the National Assembly. Members served 5-year terms. The monarchy was hereditary but the king could be removed by a two-thirds vote of the Nation Assembly.
Legislature of Bhutan
The national Parliament was established in 2008, replacing a unicameral National Assembly. The parliament today is made up of two houses. The upper house, the National Council, has 20 elected members and 5 members nominated by the monarch. The lower house, the National Assembly, has 47 members, all of whom are popularly elected. [Source: Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed, Columbia University Press; CIA World Factbook, 2020 =]
The bicameral Parliament or Chi Tshog consists of: 1) the National Assembly or Tshogdu (47 seats; members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by proportional representation vote to serve 5-year terms). and 2) the non-partisan National Council or Gyelyong Tshogde (25 seats; 20 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 5 members appointed by the king; members serve 5-year terms) =
As of 2020, 30 of the 47 seats in the National Assembly were held by United Party of Bhutan (Druk Nyamrup Tshogpa) or DNT, led by Lotay Tshering (prime minister, beginning 2018); 17 seats were held by the Bhutan Peace and Prosperity Party (Druk Phuensum Tshogpa) or DPT, led by Pema Gyamtsho (former leader Jigme Thinley was prime minister, 2008-2013). Of these 40 were men and seven were women (women, 14.9 percent). In the National Council all 20 elected seats were held by independents (all candidates ran as independents). An additional five seats were appointed by the king. Of the total 25 seats 23 were men and two were women (women, 8 percent)
See Elections Below
Legislature in Bhutan Under the Monarchy
When Bhutan was monarchy the unicameral National Assembly — the Tshogdu — was the legislative branch of government. Legislators included 10 or so members of the Buddhist hierarchy, 30 government officials and 110 representatives selected through "consensus" — a method that maintained the status quo. Most of the representatives were village chiefs or noblemen from the old feudal system. Villagers were told who to vote for and they made their decisions in public meetings rather than with secret ballots. The Tshogdu technically had the power to vote the king out office but that was unlikely to happen.
The National Assembly had the power to enact civil, criminal, and property laws; to appoint and remove ministers; to debate policy issues as a means of providing input to government decision making; and to control the auditor general, who had approval authority over government expenditures. [Source: Andrea Matles Savada, Library of Congress, 1991 *]
Since its establishment in 1953, the National Assembly had varied in size from 140 to 200 members. According to Rule 7 of the Constitution of the National Assembly, the legislature set its size every five years. The National Assembly had three categories of members: representatives of the people elected by indirect vote every three years and comprising between half and two-thirds of the National Assembly membership; monastic representatives, also appointed for three-year terms and constituting about one-third of the membership; and government officials nominated by the Druk Gyalpo.The first woman member of the National Assembly was seated in 1979.
In 1989 there were 150 members in the National Assembly, 100 of whom were representatives of the general public. Under 1981 rules, qualified citizens over twenty-five years of age could be nominated at general public meetings by village heads and adult representatives of each household (gung) and "joint family." Once nominations were certified by village heads and local government officials, they were forwarded to the speaker of the National Assembly for "final declaration of the nominee as a member of the National Assembly." The other fifty members were made up of monastic representatives nominated by the Central Monastic Body in Thimphu (or Punakha in the winter) and eight district monastic bodies, members of the Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsong), members of the Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), secretaries of various government departments, district heads, others nominated by the government, and a representative nominated by the Bhutan Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The National Assembly met at least once and sometimes twice a year — in May and June and again in October and November; each session lasts about four weeks. Emergency sessions could also be called by the Druk Gyalpo.
The National Assembly elected a speaker from among its members and was authorized to enact laws, advise the government on constitutional and political matters, and hold debates on important issues. Executive-branch organizations were responsible to the National Assembly. Powers of the National Assembly include directly questioning government officials and forcing ministers to resign if there was a two-thirds no-confidence vote.
National Assembly votes were secret in principle, but in practice decisions were almost always made by reaching a public consensus. The National Assembly, housed in the Tashichhodzong, provided a forum for presenting grievances and redressing administrative problems. The Druk Gyalpo could not formally veto bills that the National Assembly passed, but he could refer them back for reconsideration. Although criticism of the Druk Gyalpo was not permitted in the public media, it was allowed and took place in National Assembly debates in the 1980s.
History of the Bhutanese Legislature Under the Monarchy
The Tshogdu had traditionally been a rubber-stamp body that met in Tashichhodzong, the same palace building in Thimphu where the king lived. In the 1970s, delegates checked their ceremonial daggers before they entered and the atmosphere in the huge assembly hall was cordial. Legislators seldom raised their voices or interrupted a speaker. "Most issues were decided unanimously, by voice vote," the king told National Geographic. "But when a controversy develops it was always settled by secret ballot." The assembly mostly did what the king told it to do. [Source: John Scofield, National Geographic, November 1976]
In the early 1990s, Brenda Amenson-Hill wrote in the “Encyclopedia of World Cultures”: “Twenty-five percent of the 130 members of the Tsongdu (the national assembly) were government officers appointed to the assembly by the king. Included in the membership were influential lamas and the abbot of the chief monastery at Pimakha, who was a member of the ruler's council of eight ministers. The rest of the body consists of Village headmen elected for five-year terms from all over the kingdom. Each family in the villages had one vote. [Source: Brenda Amenson-Hill, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 3: South Asia,” edited by Paul Paul Hockings, 1992 |~|]
In the mid 2000s, the Tshogdu had one hundred fifty members, All assembly members serve three-year terms. The legislature had the power to originate and amend legislation; had oversight over some executive decisions; and had the authority to remove the prime minister or the monarch with a two-thirds vote. [Source: “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008]
Judiciary Branch of the Bhutanese Government
The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, which are referred to as the Royal Court of Justice. The National Judicial Commission, with the approval of the monarch, appoints justices for national and regional courts. Commission members are appointed by the legislature with approval of prime minister and the executive branch. [Source: “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008]
The highest court in Bhutan is the Supreme Court. It consists of the chief justice and four associate justices) and has sole jurisdiction in constitutional matters. The Supreme Court chief justice is appointed by the monarch upon the advice of the National Judicial Commission, a four-member body to include the Legislative Committee of the National Assembly, the attorney general, the Chief Justice of Bhutan and the senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Other judges (drangpons) appointed by the monarch from among the High Court judges selected by the National Judicial Commission; chief justice serves a 5-year term or until reaching age 65 years, whichever is earlier; the 4 other judges serve 10-year terms or until age 65, whichever is earlier [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]
In the 1990s, when Bhutan was an absolute monarchy, the highest-level court was the Supreme Court of Appeal — the Druk Gyalpo himself. The Supreme Court of Appeal heard appeals of decisions emanating from the High Court (Thrimkhang Gongma). In 1989 the High Court, which was established in 1968 to review lowercourt appeals, had six justices (including a chief justice), two of whom were elected by the National Assembly and four of whom were appointed by the Druk Gyalpo, for five-year terms. Each district had a magistrate's court (Dzongkhag Thrimkhang), headed by a magistrate or thrimpon, from which appeals can be made to the High Court. Minor civil disputes were adjudicated by a village head. All citizens have been granted the right to make informal petitions to the Druk Gyalpo, some of which have been made reportedly by citizens who flagged down the Druk Gyalpo's automobile as he toured the nation. [Source: Andrea Matles Savada, Library of Congress, 1991]
See Separate Article JUSTICE SYSTEM OF BHUTAN
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Tourism Council of Bhutan (tourism.gov.bt), National Portal of Bhutan, the Bhutan government’s main site (gov.bt), The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Wikipedia and various books, websites and other publications.
Last updated February 2022