GOVERNMENT OF BANGLADESH

Bangladesh is parliamentary republic. Its government operates under multi-party, parliamentary system modeled after the British government. Executive powers are vested in the prime Minister who rules with the assistance of Council of Ministers. Bangladesh has an elected parliament somewhat similar to the one in Great Britain. The prime minister is the leader of the party with the most seats in Parliament, and major elections are held every four years.

Bangladesh is a "secular state" but Islam its state religion and in many way it is like an Islamic republic. The country is governed by the constitution of 1972 as amended. The head of state, the president, is a largely ceremonial position. The members of the 350-seat unicameral Jatiya Sangsad (unicameral parliament) are popularly elected from constiuencies for five-year terms. The major political parties are the Bangladesh Nationalist party and the Awami League. Administratively, the nation is divided into 6 divisions, which are subdivided into 64 districts. [Source: Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., The Columbia University Press]

Government branches: 1) Executive: president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), cabinet; 2) Legislative: unicameral Parliament; and 3) Judicial: civil court system based on British model with the Supreme Court of Bangladesh as the highest court in the land. The prime minister must be a member of the Jatiya Sangsad (parliament). She/he recommends the council of ministers to the president. The president is elected for a five-year term by the parliament. The president can act only on the advice of the prime minister. The president’s power was significantly reduced in accordance with constitutional changes in 1991.

According to the “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”: The 1972 constitution of Bangladesh created a parliamentary democracy based in part on the British, or Westminster, model of parliament. As such, many British customs and procedures are incorporated into the structure of government and rules of the legislature. A president presides as head of state but plays a mostly ceremonial role. Ruling power resides with the prime minister, who is head of government with extensive administrative responsibilities. Although the Westminster model usually provides for two houses of parliament, the Bangladeshi parliament has only one house of elected representatives. [Source:“Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008]

Administrative divisions: 8 divisions; Barishal, Chattogram, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Sylhet. The division in turn are divided into and they are divided into thanas. Bangladesh used be divided into five divisions: Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Barisal and Khulna. [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020 =]

There is no citizenship by birth in Bangladesh (if a baby is born in Bangladesh but his parents are not Bangladesh citizens. There is citizenship by descent only. At least one parent must be a citizen of Bangladesh. Dual citizenship recognized: yes, but limited to select countries. Residency requirement for naturalization is 5 years. =

Symbols and Names of Bangladesh

Bangladesh means "Bengal Nation" or “homeland of the Bengal people.” The official name of the country is People's Republic of Bangladesh (Gana-Prajatantri Bangladesh). Bangladesh is often called “Sonar Bangla” ("Golden Bengal"). It is reference to the golden color of the landscape when the rice fields are ready for harvesting. What is now Bangladesh was called East Bengal when South Asia was under British rule until 1947. From 1947 to 1971 — when it became independent — present-day Bangladesh was part of Pakistan and was called East Pakistan. The name Bangladesh is compound of the Bengali words "Bangla" (Bengal) and "desh" (country) — means "Country of Bengal" [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]

Capital: Dhaka (formerly Dacca). The origins of the name are unclear, but some sources state that the city's site was originally called "dhakka," meaning "watchtower," and that the area served as a watch-station for Bengal rulers

The Bangladesh flag is comprised of a large red circle with a green background. The red circle represents the rising sun and the sacrifice and blood spilled to achieve independence. The green background represents symbolizes the lush vegetation of Bangladesh. Green is also the traditional color of Islam. The large red disk is shifted slightly to the hoist side of center.

National symbol(s): Bengal tiger, water lily; national colors: green, red. It has been said the The most important symbol of national identity is the Bangla language.

National anthem: name: "Amar Shonar Bangla" (My Golden Bengal)
lyrics/music: Rabindranath Tagore
adopted 1971 when Bangladesh became independent; Rabindranath Tagore, a Nobel laureate, also wrote India's national anthem. The national anthem was taken from a poem by Tagore. It brings together a love of the land and nature of Bangladesh with the national identity.

Democracy, Islam and Military Coups in Bangladesh

Bangladeshis are proud of their democracy with all its warts and its occasional military coups but disappointed the extent of corruption and political posturing and fighting with their government. While Bangladesh is 89 percent Muslim, the government was founded on secular principals. However, in 1988, Bangladesh’s second military ruler Hussain Muhammad Ershad declared Islam as the state religion of Bangladesh. This was viewed as the final blow to constitutional secularism in the country.

Bangladesh’s parliamentary democracy has been embraced in principle but has struggled in the face of periods of military rule, unstable governments and various national crises. Emily Wax wrote in the Washington Post: “Bangladesh has a history of political turmoil. There have been 22 coup attempts — some successful — since its independence from Pakistan in 1971.” The country was under emergency rule and run by a military-backed caretaker government after disputed elections were called off in January 2007.” The state of emergency lasted for two years. December 2008 general election resulted in a landslide victory for the Awami League-led coalition, which also included the Jatiya Party. The Awami League under Sheikh Hasina has led ever since. [Source: Emily Wax, Washington Post, May 24, 2008]

Democracy Index: hybrid regime, with a score of 6.11, ranked 76th of 167 countries (compared to Norway, ranked first with a score of 9.87 and North Korean ranked last with a score of 1.08). The index is based on 60 indicators grouped in five different categories, measuring pluralism, civil liberties and political culture. [Source: Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Wikipedia Wikipedia ]

According to “Countries of the World and Their Leaders”: “Despite serious problems related to a dysfunctional political system, weak governance, and pervasive corruption, Bangladesh remains one of the few democracies in the Muslim world. Bangladeshis regard democracy as an important legacy of their bloody war for independence, and vote in large numbers. Bangladesh is generally a force for moderation in international forums, and it is also a long-time leader in international peacekeeping operations. [Source: “Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook” 2009]

According to the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies”: “Bangladesh experienced a number of military coups after achieving independence in 1971, and several military governments tried to restrict activities of political parties. However, after the return to civil rule in 1990, all political parties may openly function in the country. There are a number of political organizations in Bangladesh. Most prominent of them are: the Awami League (a coalition of parties); the Bangladesh Nationalist Party; the Jatiya Party; and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party. The Awami League (AL), which led the country to independence in 1971, has generally supported more government interventionist policies” while “the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), which was the ruling party from 1991 until its defeat in the parliamentary election of 1996, has been more more free-market oriented. The BNP introduced the policy of economic liberalization and privatized some state-owned enterprises. It opened the national economy to international competition in an attempt to attract foreign investors.” In the 1990s the Awami League became less socialist and began supporting [Source: “Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies”, The Gale Group Inc., 2002]

“Once Bangladesh had achieved independence, political stability, the creation of a viable national economy, and the elimination of poverty became the major political issues shaping political debate and conflict in the state. The political process in the country was complicated by the hostility and often violent confrontations between the 2 leading parties, AL and BNP. The Awami League won the first post-independence general elections while promulgating ideas of nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism. In economic areas, this government took a strongly interventionist role in the development and industrialization of the national economy. The party, however, could not overcome the economic and political divisions within Bangladeshi society and lost its power in a military coup in August 1975. The coup pushed the country towards even greater political instability, which continued until 1990, when charismatic General Hossain Ershad was forced to resign. Military rule failed to bring stability to the country because it did not stop the rivalry between the 2 major parties, the AL and BNP. In fact, the army was drawn into the groups' political confrontations.

History of the Government in Bangladesh

According to the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”: “Bangladesh inherited the provincial government under which first the Dominion, then Republic, of Pakistan was governed, a parliamentary system based on the Westminster model with a unicameral legislature. Following this model, the constitution of December 1972 established a unitary, democratic republic, with an indirectly elected president as nominal head of state and a prime minister as head of government and chief executive. The prime minister and his government are responsible to a unicameral legislature — the Tatija Sangsad — elected no less frequently than every five years and composed of 300 members. (A constitutional amendment reserving 30 additional parliamentary seats for indirect election of women expired in May 2001.) The constitution incorporated four basic principles of state policy: nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy. With considerable controversy, because of its impact on the nearly 17 percent of the population which is non-Muslim, Islam replaced secularism as a state principle by constitutional amendment in 1977. [Source: “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”, Thomson Gale, 2007]

“The constitution was amended in 1975, at the initiative of Prime Minister Mujibur Rahman, to abrogate most guarantees of civil liberties, to establish a one-party polity, and to make the presidency, rather than the prime ministership, the chief executive of the government. Mujib's assassination later that year, and the countercoup that occurred three months later resulted in a four-year suspension of the constitution by Bangladesh's martial law ruler, Gen. Ziaur Rahman.

“Rahman himself was assassinated in 1981, and in the turmoil that ensued, Gen. H. M. Ershad seized power. Ershad declared himself president in 1982, and held office until 1990, when increasing antigovernment protests and violence resulted in his resignation. He was later jailed on corruption charges. The interim government then conducted what most observers regard as the most free and fair elections ever held in Bangladesh, in 1991.

“Begum Khaleda Ziair Rahman, widow of General Rahman and the head of his Bangladesh Nationalist Party, became the first woman to hold the position of prime minister in Bangladesh following the elections in 1991. Among her first acts, she reversed from her former position in favor of retaining a strong presidential system to restore the parliamentary system of 1972 and to return to the prime ministership the powers removed by Mujib in 1975. She led the campaign with strong Awami League support, which resulted in overwhelming parliamentary approval of a constitutional amendment. Kahleda Zia was forced to step down in March 1996, after two years of political turmoil following an opposition boycott of Parliament and elections. The opposition AL, which claimed the BNP had rigged two elections, was swept into power in the internationally monitored elections of June 1996. Sheikh Hasina Wajed then formed a coalition majority in Parliament with the Jatiya Party. By September 1996, with several victories in by-elections, the Awami League controlled an absolute majority of seats in Parliament. The government was thus unaffected by the Jatiya Party's withdrawal from the coalition in March 1997.

“Parliamentary elections held 1 October 2001 resulted in a return of Kahleda Zia to power. The BNP took 201 seats, the AL held 62, Jamaat-e-Islami held 18, and the Ershad faction of the Jatiya Party took 14 seats. The majority BNP government aligned with three of the smaller parties, Jamaat-e-Islami, Islami Oikya Jote, and the Naziur faction of the Jatiya Party. Elections were scheduled to be held in 2007. The Jamaat-e-Islami party is sympathetic to Osama bin Laden, a position that was controversial, especially after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States attributed to him. Zia attempted to quell domestic and international unease resulting from this position, asserting that Bangladesh would not become a fundamentalist Islamic state. However, her three coalition partners advocated replacing Bangladesh's secular laws with Islamic law, or Shariah.”

Bangladesh’s Political Struggles

Robert I. Rotberg of Harvard University wrote in the Chicago Tribune, “Bangladesh, once known as East Pakistan, has been a sovereign nation for” only a few decades. “It wrenched itself from the heavy grip of postpartition Pakistan only in 1971, after a short but bloody civil war. Since then, however, Bangladesh has been convulsed by its own internal battles. Many have occurred between civilians, and some between soldiers and civilians. But almost all have been about control and the spoils of Bangladesh. Few of the differences among the various contenders, whether in uniform or civilian dress, have been about ideology. [Source: Robert I. Rotberg, Chicago Tribune, February 17, 2008. Robert I. Rotberg directs Harvard University's Kennedy School program on intrastate conflict and is president of the World Peace Foundation]

“Chief among the civilians have been the dynastic political oligarchies of the Awami League and the Bangladesh National Party. The Bangladesh National Party has been somewhat closer to India, and India's size, interests and relative economic power have greatly affected Bangladesh. But otherwise, there is little to separate the Bangladesh National Party from the Awami League. What the two have most in common is a striving for power, a power that has provided access to great wealth. Transparency International has rated Bangladesh either the most corrupt country in the world, or nearly so, consistently since the 1990s.

“Many nations are riven by ethnicity, language, religion or caste. Not so Bangladesh, one of the most homogenous large nations on Earth. About 95 percent of its people are Bengali-speaking Sunni Muslims. The country was governed by Britain and British India until partition in 1947 as East Bengal; from partition to 1971, it was run by... what was then known as West Pakistan.

“The Awami League and the BNP had been feuding, with occasional bloodshed, since 1991, when civilians led by Khaleda Zia of the BNP replaced a previous military junta. Power changed hands a few times over the next decade. But the various governments brought little economic growth and/or stability to Bangladesh, one of the poorest countries in the world. Moeen's intervention, unlike Musharraf's coup in Pakistan in 1999, led not to direct military rule, but to the installation of a caretaker government of civilians. Moeen and the military act as the behind-the-scenes backbone of a largely technocratic government.

Bangladesh's Model of Military-Interventionist Government

In 2008, at a time when Bangladesh was under military rule and Pakistan was coming apart at the seams under Gen. Pervez Musharraf, Harvard’s Robert I. Rotberg wrote in the Chicago Tribune, Bangladesh has remained stable and largely peaceful under a very differently focused strongman, Gen. Moeen U. Ahmed. Under Moeen's direction, the military intervention in Bangladesh has been largely measured. His approach offers a potential alternative path for developing countries immersed, as so many are, in interminable political conflict and infected by rampant corruption. [Source: Robert I. Rotberg, Chicago Tribune, February 17, 2008]

“The American-trained Moeen assumed power in January 2007 after Bangladeshis, prompted by the Awami League, rioted in the streets of Dhaka, the capital. The protests were aimed at the corrupt rule of the Bangladesh National Party and the prospects of unfair elections that would perpetuate BNP power. Moeen expressed shock at television images, broadcast around the world, of Bangladeshis killing each other and destroying Dhaka. The army had to separate the politicians, according to Moeen, and intervene to prevent bloodshed. Indeed, at the time and since, Bangladeshi public opinion has broadly supported the intervention.

“The acting president is styled as "chief adviser." The various Cabinet ministers are called "advisers" as well, such as "foreign affairs adviser," and so on. Though Moeen and his fellow generals hold the ultimate reins of power, they largely try to stay in the background. Moeen "consults" with the chief adviser only a few times a week, according to officials. And he refrains from issuing "orders." That makes Moeen's approach unusual, and conceivably more effective than the common, hands-on approach of soldiers in the developing world.

“Moeen frequently reiterates that, as promised, full civilian rule will resume and elections will be held in December. Indeed, Moeen asserts that the dangers of soldiers staying on too long are greater than the risks posed should politicians reassert control and further corrupt the country. Moeen has not invented a mechanism for vaccinating Bangladesh against a resumption of the feud between the Awami League and the Bangladesh National Party. Nor will he. The army also refuses to intervene in the court cases now under way to determine whether former political rulers should be convicted of corruption, and thus of misrule. Ready or not, the generals in Bangladesh will let civilians retake power in less than a year, in December.

“Conceivably, a new national security council could be installed constitutionally to give the soldiers some continuing oversight of the country's political direction. That would be innovative, and it would provide another lesson for Pakistan and troubled developing countries everywhere. Moeen and his colleagues are attempting to craft a new trajectory for a troubled Muslim country, a nation with its own potential for Islamic extremism. So far, the generals have succeeded in at least charting a new path between corrupt, inefficient civilians and heavy-handed military tyranny without arousing civil discontent or demonstrations.”

Constitution of Bangladesh

Constitution history: previous 1935, 1956, 1962 (preindependence); latest enacted November 4 1972, effective December 16, 1972, suspended March 1982, restored November 1986. The constitution has been amended many times, including in 1974, 1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1996, and 2004. The last time was in 2018. Amendments are proposed by the House of the Nation; approval requires at least two-thirds majority vote of the legislature and approval by the president. [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]

The Bangladesh Constitution was set up according to four principals: democracy, secularism, nationalism and socialism. It abolished titles, honors and decorations, prohibited forced labor and promised freedom of movement, assembly, association, speech, profession, occupation, religion and thought and conscience. It also declared mo discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth.

While Bangladesh is 89 percent Muslim, the government was founded on secular principals. However, in 1988, Bangladesh’s second military ruler Hussain Muhammad Ershad declared Islam as the state religion of Bangladesh. This was viewed as the final blow to constitutional secularism in the country.

History of the Constitution of Bangladesh

The Constitution of Bangladesh has formed the basis for the nation's political organization since it was adopted on November 4, 1972. Many abrupt political changes have caused suspension of the Constitution and have led to amendments in almost every section, including the total revision of some major provisions. It is notable, however, that every regime that came to power since 1972 has couched major administrative changes in terms of the Constitution and has attempted to legitimize changes by legally amending this basic document. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]

According to the Constitution, the state has a positive role to play in reorganizing society in order to create a free and equal citizenry and provide for the welfare of all. The government is required to ensure food, shelter, clothing, medical care, education, work, and social security for the people. The government must also build socialism by implementing programs to "remove social and economic inequality" and "ensure the equitable distribution of wealth among citizens." These far-reaching goals represented the viewpoints of many members of the 1972 Constituent Assembly and the early Awami League (People's League) government, who were deeply influenced by socialist ideology. Another sector of public opinion, however, has always viewed private property and private enterprise as the heart of social and economic development. This viewpoint is also part of the constitutional principles of state policy, which equally recognize state, cooperative, and private forms of ownership. The Constitution thus mandates a high degree of state involvement in the establishment of socialism, although it explicitly preserves a private property system. In practice, the Constitution has supported a wide range of government policies, ranging from those of the nationalized, interventionist state of Mujib's time to the increasing deregulation and reliance on market forces under presidents Ziaur Rahman (Zia) and Ershad.*

The framers of the Constitution, after emerging from a period of intense repression under Pakistan, took great pains to outline the fundamental rights of citizens even before describing the government's structure. According to the section on fundamental rights, all men and women are equal before the law, without discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. The Constitution also guarantees the right to assemble, hold public meetings, and form unions. Freedom of speech and of the press are ensured. Persons who have been arrested must be informed of the charges made against them, and they must be brought before a magistrate within twenty-four hours. The Constitution, however, adds that these guarantees are subject to "any reasonable restrictions imposed by law," leaving open the possibility of an administrative decision to revoke fundamental rights. Furthermore, there is a provision for "preventive detention" of up to six months. Those being held under preventive detention do not have the right to know the charges made against them, nor to appear before a magistrate, and a legal advisory board may extend this form of detention after seeing the detainee. The Constitution does not define the circumstances or the level of authority necessary for the revocation of constitutional guarantees or for the enforcement of preventive detention. During the many occasions of civil disorder or public protest that have marked Bangladeshi political life, the incumbent administration has often found it useful to suspend rights or jail opponents without trial in accordance with the Constitution.*

The Islamic religion was the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan, and it has remained an important component of Bangladeshi ideology. The Constitution as originally framed in 1972 explicitly described the government of Bangladesh as "secular," but in 1977 an executive proclamation made three changes in wording that did away with this legacy. The proclamation deleted "secular" and inserted a phrase stating that a fundamental state principle is "absolute trust and faith in the Almighty Allah." The phrase bismillah ar rahman ar rahim (in the name of Allah, the beneficent, the merciful) was inserted before the preamble of the Constitution. Another clause states that the government should "preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity." These changes in terminology reflected an overt state policy aimed at strengthening Islamic culture and religious institutions as central symbols of nationalism and at reinforcing international ties with other Islamic nations, including wealthy Arab oil-producing countries. Domestically, state support for Islam, including recognition of Islam as the state religion in the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution in June 1988, has not led to official persecution of other religions. Despite agitation by Jamaat e Islami (Congregation of Islam) and other conservative parties, there was no official implementation of sharia (Islamic law) as of mid-1988.*

The Constitution is patterned closely on the British and United States models inasmuch as it includes provisions for independent legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. When it first came into effect, the Constitution established a Britishstyle executive, with a prime minister appointed from a parliamentary majority as the effective authority under a titular president. In 1975 the Fourth Amendment implemented "Mujibism" (named for Mujib), mandating a single national party and giving the president effective authority, subject to the advice of a prime minister. The later governments of Zia and Ershad preserved the powers of the presidency and strengthened the office of the chief executive through amendments and their personal control of the highest office in the land. Because of this concentration of power in individual leaders, the Bangladeshi Constitution gives much greater authority to the executive branch than does the United States Constitution. In fact, the legislature and the courts have few constitutional avenues for checking presidential power, while the executive has many tools for dominating the other branches of the government.*

Structure of the Bangladesh Government

Bangladesh is governed under a written Constitution. The Constitution created a strong executive Prime Minister, an independent judiciary, and a unicameral legislature on a modified Westminster model. The Constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League's four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy. [Source: “Cities of the World” , The Gale Group Inc. 2002]

The constitution provides a parliamentary democracy with three branches of government. According to the “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”: “The executive branch of government has two leaders, a president and a prime minister. The president is elected by parliament every five years and can serve no more than two terms. The president’s role is mostly ceremonial. A 1996 constitutional amendment, however, created a unique structure for the transfer of power at the end of a prime minister’s term. At such time a caretaking government relieves the outgoing prime minister’s government, oversee elections within ninety days, and assists in transferring power to the newly elected government. During the caretaking government, the president acquires expanded powers and plays an important role in the transition. [Source:“Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008]

“The prime minister is a member of parliament and is appointed by the president based on ability to command the confidence of other members of parliament. Often the leader of the political party with majority representation in parliament is selected to the post. The prime minister is the guiding force for policy in Bangladesh and wields the administrative powers of the government. The prime minister nominates the Cabinet of Ministers for appointment by the president. Ninety percent of the ministers must be members of parliament as well. The ministers serve as the heads of the executive departments of government.

“The legislative branch of government is a unicameral parliament (Jatiya Sangsad). It has” 350 “members who are elected by universal suffrage at least every five years. In 2004 a constitutional amendment created forty-five seats to be reserved for women. At the election in 2008 these additional seats were distributed among political parties in proportion to the number of seats they already hold in parliament. There are now 50 seats reserved for women.

“The Bangladeshi Constitution provides an independent judicial system also modeled after the British system. A Low Court and a Supreme Court exist to hear civil and criminal cases. Civil laws include elements of both Hindu and Islamic religious principles relating to various social matters. The Low Court consists of magistrate courts. The Supreme Court has two divisions. The High Court hears original cases as well as reviews cases decided in the Low Court. The Appellate Court hears appeals from the High Court. Trials are public, and citizens have rights of counsel and appeal.

“Local governance is provided through six regional divisions of the country, each of which are divided into zila (districts). Each zila is composed of upazila (subdistricts) or thana (police stations). In metropolitan areas, each thana contains divisions of wards and then mahallas . In other areas, upazilas and thanas contain unions consisting of multiple villages. Divisions, zilas, and upazilas are overseen by unelected government officials. Municipalities have chairpersons, and cities have mayors who are elected for terms of five years. Elections are held at the union or ward levels for each chairperson and several members of council. Parliamentary action in 1997 assured that in unions, three of every twelve council seats are reserved for women.

Branches of the Bangladesh Government

Executive branch: Head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina (since January 6. 2009). chief of state: President Abdul Hamid (since 24 April 2013). The Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Sheikh Hasina was reappointed prime minister as leader of the majority Awami League (AL) party following parliamentary elections in 2018. The president is indirectly elected by the National Parliament for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term).The last election was in February 2018. The next is in 2023. The president appoints as prime minister the majority party leader in the National Parliament. Abdul Hamid served as acting president following the death of Zillur Rahman in March 2013; Hamid was subsequently indirectly elected by the National Parliament and sworn in April 2013. President Hamid (AL) reelected by the National Parliament unopposed for a second term; [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]

Legislative branch: unicameral (single house) House of the Nation or Jatiya Sangsad (350 seats). 300 members in single-seat territorial constituencies are directly elected by simple majority popular vote; 50 members — reserved for women only — are indirectly elected by the elected members by proportional representation vote using single transferable vote. All members serve five-year terms. Elections were last held on December 30, 2018. The next will held in 2023. Seats by party as of January 2020 — Awami League (AL): 299,; Jatiya Party (JP, a conservative political Islamic party): 27; Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) 7; other: 10; independent: 4; vacant: 3. Composition: men 274 (73 percent); women: 73 (21 percent).

Judicial branch: highest courts: Supreme Court of Bangladesh (organized into the Appellate Division with 7 justices and the High Court Division with 99 justices). Judge selection and term of office: chief justice and justices appointed by the president; justices serve until retirement at age 67. Subordinate courts: civil courts include: Assistant Judge's Court; Joint District Judge's Court; Additional District Judge's Court; District Judge's Court; criminal courts include: Court of Sessions; Court of Metropolitan Sessions; Metropolitan Magistrate Courts; Magistrate Court; special courts/tribunals

Prime Minister and Executive Branch of Bangladesh

The prime minister is the head of government and holds the most power in Bangladesh. The presidency is a largely ceremonial position. The prime minister must be a member of the Jatiya Sangsad (parliament). She/he recommends the council of ministers to the president. The president is the constitutional head of state and is elected for a 5-year term by the parliament. The president can act only on the advice of the prime minister, as the presidential power was significantly reduced in accordance with constitutional changes in 1991.

Executive branch: Head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina (since January 6. 2009). chief of state: President Abdul Hamid (since 24 April 2013). The Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Sheikh Hasina was reappointed prime minister as leader of the majority Awami League (AL) party following parliamentary elections in 2018. The president is indirectly elected by the National Parliament for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term). The last election was in February 2018. The next is in 2023. The president appoints as prime minister the majority party leader in the National Parliament. Abdul Hamid served as acting president following the death of Zillur Rahman in March 2013; Hamid was subsequently indirectly elected by the National Parliament and sworn in April 2013. President Hamid (AL) reelected by the National Parliament unopposed for a second term; [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]

According to the “Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”: ““The prime minister is a member of parliament and is appointed by the president based on ability to command the confidence of other members of parliament. Often the leader of the political party with majority representation in parliament is selected to the post. The prime minister is the guiding force for policy in Bangladesh and wields the administrative powers of the government. The prime minister nominates the Cabinet of Ministers for appointment by the president. Ninety percent of the ministers must be members of parliament as well. The ministers serve as the heads of the executive departments of government. [Source:“Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments”, Thomson Gale, 2008]

“A 1996 constitutional amendment created a unique structure for the transfer of power at the end of a prime minister’s term. At such time a caretaking government relieves the outgoing prime minister’s government, oversee elections within ninety days, and assists in transferring power to the newly elected government. During the caretaking government, the president acquires expanded powers and plays an important role in the transition.”

President of Bangladesh and His Special Caretaker Role

The president, who must be at least thirty-five years old, is directly elected by all voters for a five-year term, and according to the provisions of the Sixth Amendment (1981) he may be reelected. He is commander in chief of the armed forces, oversees the conduct of all foreign affairs, appoints the vice president for a five-year term, and has the power to convene and dissolve Parliament. The president also chooses cabinet ministers, who run the government bureaucracy; heads a secretariat that devises money bills for introduction into Parliament; and appoints the members of the Elections Commission, who supervise all aspects of elections. In addition, the president appoints, without the need for parliamentary approval, Supreme Court justices and lower court judges. Parliament, in turn, can only impeach the president with a two-thirds vote and can only remove the president from office because of malfeasance or illness with a vote of three-fourths of its members. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]

The president has a number of extraordinary constitutional means of wielding power and influence. In the case of a constitutionally defined "grave emergency" threatening "the security or economic life of Bangladesh," the president may issue a proclamation of emergency, which eliminates all restrictions on state power and the protection of fundamental rights. A state of emergency may last 120 days, or longer with Parliament's approval. If the president determines that "immediate action" is necessary, he may promulgate any ordinance he wants, as long as it is laid before Parliament for approval at its next session — that is, if it has not already been repealed. Added to the considerable power of being able to place persons in preventive detention, these are a potent array of powers controlled directly, and without means for external control, by the president. The Fifth Amendment (1979) allows the president to amend the Constitution, without action by Parliament, by conducting a general referendum allowing a majority of citizens to approve an amendment. Constitutional amendments approved by Parliament must be passed by a two-thirds majority.*

The increase in executive power has been the most important trend in the development of the Bangladeshi Constitution. This increase has developed because, in practice, even the very large scope of presidential authority has proved insufficient to protect civilian governments from military coups or to provide military leaders with sufficient legitimacy to preserve their power. Thus Mujib established a constitutional dictatorship, and both Zia and Ershad ruled for extended periods as chief martial law administrators in order to consolidate their hold over the country and to safeguard their influence by increasing their executive powers. Through the extended periods when Parliament was suspended, proclamations of the president or the chief martial law administrator amended the Constitution, not only to strengthen the office of the president but also to legitimize presidential acts.*

According to “Countries of the World and Their Leaders”: “The president's circumscribed powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government. (Under the 13th Amendment, which Parliament passed in March 1996, a caretaker government assumes power temporarily to oversee general elections after dissolution of the Parliament.) In the caretaker government, the president has control over the Ministry of Defense, the authority to declare a state of emergency, and the power to dismiss the Chief Adviser and other members of the caretaker government. Once elections have been held and a new government and Parliament are in place, the president's powers and position revert to their largely ceremonial role. The Chief Adviser and other advisers to the caretaker government must be appointed within 15 days from the day the current Parliament expires. [Source: “Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook” 2009]

Cabinet of Bangladesh

The president administers the country through the Council of Ministers — the cabinet — which is headed by the prime minister, a presidential appointee. Up to one-fifth of the members of the cabinet may be persons from outside Parliament, allowing experts to participate in the administration of the country, and the president may attract influential politicians to his party by offering them prestigious ministerial posts. According to the constitution, the president can dissolve Parliament upon the written request of the prime minister. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *; “Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook” 2009]

The number of ministers in the cabinet has therefore varied over time, according to presidential political strategies. There were nineteen ministers in the 1982 cabinet of President Abdul Fazal Muhammad Ahsanuddin Chowdhury, but by mid-1988 Ershad had increased the number to twenty-eight. Variations in the number of ministries do not signify the creation or cancelation of government programs but simply the reclassification of government services. For example, in 1982 finance and planning programs were administered by a single ministry with two divisions, but in 1988 a separate ministry was created for each.*

In addition to changes in the status of various governmental divisions, discontinuities have occurred when the president has periodically dismissed ministers or moved them to different ministries. In the midst of this flux, administrative continuity is provided by the secretariats of the various ministries and regions, staffed by senior members of the Bangladesh Civil Service. Ministerial secretaries have often wielded a great deal of power because they are experienced and have numerous personal contacts in their fields, whereas ministers are typically professional politicians who hold office only for a short time.*

In the 1970 after Bangladesh became a nation, members of the cabinet only earned $275 a month. Cabinet positions are sometimes given out for political reasons as is the case in many countries. They are sometimes given to Hindus who make about 10 percent of the population.

Bangladesh’s Two Women Prime Ministers: Sheik Hasina and Khaleda Zia

Bangladeshi politics since democracy was restored in 1991 has been dominated by two women: Begum Khaleda Zia, widow of former President Zia, and Sheik Hasina Wazed, the daughter of former president Sheikh Mujib. The two women are around same age (born in 1945 and 1947). Both came from power political families and both were close relatives of previous Bangladeshi leaders who were assassinated.

In late 1980s and early 1990s, Zia and Wazed worked together to organize street demonstration which brought an end to military rule and install democracy in 1990. The two fell out with each other after Zia surprised everyone by defeating the favored Wazed in national elections in 1991.

According to the World Press Encyclopedia: “In February 1991, following elections, Begum Khaleda Zia became the Prime Minister. In September, the constitution was revised. The country returned to a parliamentary system of government. In early 1996, the press played a key role in persuading the BNP government, whose term of office had just ended, to hand over authority to a caretaker government in April and thereby set the stage for national elections in June. The media succeeded; the general election of June 1996 held by the caretaker government put a coalition government under the AL's Sheikh Hasina. The "Caretaker Government Amendment" made it obligatory that, in future, all general elections in Bangladesh would be held by a neutral, non-partisan caretaker administration headed by the President. Accordingly, on July 13, 2001, Hasina stepped down as Prime Minister handing over the charge to a caretaker administration. The general elections of October 2001 held by the caretaker administration brought in a new government, this time under the BNP's Khaleda Zia as Prime Minister. [Source: World Press Encyclopedia, The Gale Group Inc., 2003]

Women Leaders in Bangladesh and South Asia

It is ironic that women have ruled the countries of Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh, where the status of women is among the lowest in the world. The women that have taken power in these countries have been the widows or daughters of prominent politicians.

Some scholars also attribute the success of women in South Asian politics to a belief in the subcontinent in “skakti” (feminine power). Many soldiers, for example, in India, Nepal and parts of Sri Lanka, still consecrate their swords and rifles with blood-colored powders before images of the demon-slaying goddess Durga. Stanley Wolpert, a professor of Indian history, told TIME, women leaders may be an "accident of gender" but "over and above everything else, there's a strong worship of the Mother Goddess in South Asia. Subliminally, it's still there in Pakistan, to."

Delhi psychiatrist Ashis Nandy told TIME, "There is a strong sense of the matriarchy at play in politics. Some politicians also see women as a bet for containing factions — a good neutral choice." One diplomat told the Washington Post: "In the next round of assassinations, when the mothers are killed, probably the sons" will inherit the political legacies.

Legislature of Bangladesh

The legislature of Bangladesh is a unicameral (single house) parliament called the Jatiya Sangsad ("House of the Nation"). It has 350 members who are elected by universal suffrage at least every five years. 300 members in single-seat territorial constituencies are directly elected by simple majority popular vote; 50 members — reserved for women only — are indirectly elected by the elected members by proportional representation vote using single transferable vote. All members serve five-year terms. Elections were last held on December 30, 2018. The next will held in 2023. Seats by party as of January 2020 — Awami League (AL): 299,; Jatiya Party (JP, a conservative political Islamic party): 27; Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) 7; other: 10; independen: 4; vacant: 3. Composition: men 274 (73 percent); women: 73 (21 percent). [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020]

The Jatiya Sangsad makes the laws for the nation. It used to be called the Jatiyo Sangsad (“House of the People”). Members of Parliament (Mps) must be at least twenty-five years old. Parliament sits for a maximum of five years, must meet at least twice a year, and must meet less than thirty days after election results are declared. The president calls Parliament into session. The assembly elects a speaker and a deputy speaker, who chair parliamentary activities. Parliament also appoints a standing committee, a special committee, a secretariat, and an ombudsman. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]

Parliament debates and votes on legislative bills. Decisions are decided by a majority vote of the 300 members, with the presiding officer abstaining from voting except to break a tie. A quorum is sixty members. If Parliament passes a nonmoney bill, it goes to the president; if he disapproves of the bill, he may return it to Parliament within fifteen days for renewed debate. If Parliament again passes the bill, it becomes law. If the president does not return a bill to Parliament within fifteen days, it automatically becomes law. All money bills require a presidential recommendation before they can be introduced for debate in Parliament. Parliament has the ability to reject the national budget or to delay implementation. It is therefore in the best interests of the executive as well as the entire nation that budgets submitted to Parliament should be designed to please the majority of its members. The legislature is thus a potentially powerful force for enacting laws over the objections of the president or for blocking presidential financial initiatives. In practice, however, because most members of Parliament have been affiliated with the president's party, the legislature has typically served the interests of the president. *

The Bangladeshi and British parliaments have accommodated political parties in a similar manner. After elections, a single political party or a coalition of parties must form a government — that is, they must form a block of votes within Parliament that guarantees the passage of bills they may introduce. Once a parliamentary majority is formed, the president chooses the majority leader as prime minister and appoints other members of the majority as cabinet ministers. Parliament can function for a full five-year term if a single party or coalition can continue to guarantee a majority. If, however, opposition members attract enough votes to block a bill, the president can dissolve Parliament and call for new elections. In order to prevent widespread bribing of members, or the constant defection of members from one party to another, the Constitution declares that party members who abstain, vote against their party, or absent themselves lose their seats immediately. In practice, whenever Parliament has been in session, a single party affiliated with the president has been able to command a solid majority. *

Elections in Bangladesh

Elections for the parliament (legislature, Jatiya Sangsad) were last held on December 30, 2018. The next will held in 2023. Seats by party as of January 2020 — Awami League (AL): 299,; Jatiya Party (JP, a conservative political Islamic party): 27; Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) 7; other: 10; independent: 4; vacant: 3. Composition: men 274 (73 percent); women: 73 (21 percent). [Source: CIA World Factbook, 2020 =]

The president is indirectly elected by the National Parliament for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term).The last election was in February 2018. The next is in 2023. The last presidential election was in February 2018. The next is in 2023. In the 2000s, there were 26,000 polling stations across the country. =

Suffrage is universal. Legal voting age: 18 (compared to 16 in Ethiopia and Austria and 25 in United Arab Emirates, most countrIES are 18). All adult citizens (18 years old and over) are eligible to vote, including women and ethnic minorities.

Voter turnout: 80 percent in 2018, 51.4 percent in 2014, 85.3 percent in 2008 and 75 percent in 2001. [Source: President IDEA idea.int ]

According to the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies”: “In 1991, the first free and fair election was held in Bangladesh. Begum Khaleda Zia (widow of General Ziaur Rahman, the president from 1978 until his assassination in 1981) and her party (BNP) won the election. The 1996 parliamentary election, however, was accompanied by irregularities and almost pushed the country into chaos again. The BNP won the February 1996 parliamentary election, which was boycotted by the AL-led opposition. The confrontation escalated in violence, and the BNP handed power over to a caretaker government. After 2 decades in opposition, the Awami League won the June 1996 parliamentary election, with support from the Jatiya Party. [Source: “Worldmark Encyclopedia of National Economies”, The Gale Group Inc., 2002]

There has traditionally been a lot of violence around election time. Street fights and gun battles between rival activists and bombings are common during campaigns. People have been killed in gun battles at voting stations. The student wings of the Awami League and the BNP have engaged in West-Side-Story-style rumbles at Dhaka University. Before elections there has often been an increase in small arms smuggling. In the early 2000s, more than 40 people were killed, 1,500 were wounded and 600 were arrested in violence connected with elections for rural councils.

Parliament Election Procedures in Bangladesh

The main elections are the parliamentary (legislature, Jatiya Sangsad) elections. Before they are held the prime minister steps down. According to the constitution the leader steps down and an interim caretaker government (the Neutral Caretaker Government, NCG) holds power for three months during the campaign period and the election, During the 2001 election the caretaker government was headed by former chief justice. Thousands of extra police and paramilitary force were put on alert during the three month period.

According to the “World Press Encyclopedia”: “In February 1991, following elections, Begum Khaleda Zia became the Prime Minister. In September, the constitution was revised. The country returned to a parliamentary system of government. In early 1996, the BNP government, whose term of office had just ended, handed over authority to a caretaker government in April and thereby set the stage for national elections in June. The general election of June 1996 held by the caretaker government put together a coalition government under the AL's Sheikh Hasina. The "Caretaker Government Amendment" made it obligatory that, in future, all general elections in Bangladesh would be held by a neutral, non-partisan caretaker administration headed by the President. Accordingly, on July 13, 2001, Hasina stepped down as Prime Minister handing over the charge to a caretaker administration. The general elections of October 2001 held by the caretaker administration brought in a new government, this time under the BNP's Khaleda Zia as Prime Minister. [Source: “World Press Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2003]

The procedure for a general election in Bangladesh is at the completion of a five year term, power is handed over to the NCG, which must be headed by the most recently retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Members of the chief justices administration must also be non-political people, who are expected to be neutral and impartial. The administration has a fixed term of three months and it main duty is to conduct the elections.

Women in Government in Bangladesh

Year women obtained the right to vote: 1972, a year after independence (compared to 1893 in New Zealand and 2011 in Saudi Arabia) [Source: infoplease.com ; Wikipedia

Proportion of seats held by women in national legislatures: 21 percent in 2020 (compared to 53 percent in Bolivia, 20 percent in the United States and 3 percent in Kuwait). In 2020 women held 73 of the 350 seats (21 percent) in parliament. [Source: World Bank worldbank.org ]

One of the unique features of the political system in Bangladesh is that 50 seats of the 350 seats (14 percent) in the parliament are reserved for female members. They are indirectly elected by the elected members by proportional representation vote using single transferable vote.

In 2004 a constitutional amendment created forty-five seats to be reserved for women. At the election in 2008 these additional seats were distributed among political parties in proportion to the number of seats they already hold in parliament. There are now 50 seats reserved for women. The Awami League — the country party that now rules Bangladesh — initially did not take its share of the reserved seats, arguing that they did not support the indirect election or nomination of women to fill these seats. Several women's groups also demanded direct election to fill the reserved seats for women. [Source: “Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook” 2009]

NGOs encourage women to vie for seats in village councils that have traditionally been dominated by men. There are also quota for women in the civil service and an effort is being made to recruit women into the military.

History of Women in Government in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh women participated extensively in anti-British agitations during the 1930s and 1940s and were an active force during the independence struggle. Since 1972 the Constitution and the legal system have guaranteed equal rights for women to participate in all aspects of public life. The prominence of the well-known opposition party leaders Hasina and Khaleda Zia at first sight indicated a national openness to women's political power. Both, however, were exceptional in Bangladeshi politics. They originally owed their positions to family connections and only later skillfully built their own followings and platforms. Women candidates for political office were a rarity in the 1970s and 1980s, and female participation was labeled anti-Islamic by conservative men throughout the country. Secular provisions in Bangladeshi laws safeguarded the equality of women while "protecting" them and assuming their dependence. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]

Women running for office in the 1970s and 80s had little success. In the 1979 parliamentary elections, for example, only 17 women were among 2,125 candidates for 300 seats; none of the women won, and only 3 polled over 15 percent of the vote. At the union council level, the 1973 elections returned only one woman chairman, and the 1977 and 1984 elections each returned only four female chairmen. The leaders running the country, recognizing that women suffer disabilities when competing for office against men, reserved thirty seats for women in Parliament. The profiles of the women occupying these seats exemplied the subordinate positions of women in Bangladesh, even those occupying public offices. In the 1979 Parliament, fifteen women members were formerly housewives, and twenty-seven had no prior legislative experience. A study of women nominated to union councils revealed that 60 percent were less than 30 years of age, only 8 percent were over 40 years of age, and only 4 percent had college degrees.

Prior to the 1988 parliamentary elections, the provision for reserved seats for women had been allowed to lapse. The result was that women were left practically without representation at the national level, although there were other forums for political involvement at the local level. In mid-1988 three women sat on union and subdistrict councils. Municipal councils also included women, but the law precluded women from exceeding 10 percent of council membership. Some women's groups, such as the Jatiyo Mohila Sangstha (National Organization for Women), have held major conferences to discuss women's problems and mobilization strategies. Although these women's organizations were the province of middle-class women, they served as training grounds, as did local councils, for a new generation of politically active women.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Bangladesh Tourism Board, Bangladesh National Portal (www.bangladesh.gov.bd), The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Wikipedia and various books, websites and other publications.

Last updated February 2022