EDUCATION SYSTEM IN BANGLADESH
In Bangladesh, all citizens must undertake twelve years of compulsory education which consists of eight years at primary school level and four years at high school level. Primary and secondary education is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools. Up until the late 2000s, five years of education was compulsory for students between the ages of 6 and 11, but rural girls were exempted from this law. That is no longer the case as a great amount of effort has been put into educating girls in Bangladesh. [Source: Wikipedia; “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”, Thomson Gale, ++]
Primary education consists of eight years and covers grades (classes) one through. Secondary education consists of four years and covers grades nine through twelve. Primary school used to consist of five grades and secondary school was divided into three two-year cycles of junior (three years), upper (two years), and higher (two years). After eight years of primary school students may opt out of the the general education track and attend a vocational training school for two years, followed by a higher technical course of two years. There is also a system of madrasahs (Islamic schools), which are required to follow a curricula established by the national government. Most educational institutions are supported by the government in full or partially. The language of instruction is generally Bangla although English is given a high place at many schools, especially elite ones. ++
In 2003, the student-teacher ration in primary school was about 54 to 1 and the ratio in secondary school was 34 to 1. In the late 1990s, there were 45,383 primary schools, 8,983 secondary schools and 833 colleges offering general education. Educational enrollment at that time was 11,939,949 students in primary education; 3,592,995 students in secondary education and 434,309 in various forms of higher education. [Source: Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
School Enrollment in Bangladesh
Net enrollment primary: male: 92 percent; female: 91 percent; total: 91 percent.
Primary completion rate: male: 64 percent; female: 72 percent; total: 68 percent.
Net enrollment: pre-primary: 41 percent.
Out of school children, primary age: male: 239,896; female: 447,457; total: 803,733 (2008).
Children out of school: primary school age: 5 percent (2010]
Children out of school, female primary school age: 3 percent.
Persistence to last grade of primary, total: 66 percent of those who started (2009).
Net intake rate in grade 1, female: 93 percent of official school-age population (2010)
Net enrollment secondary: male: 61 percent; female: 72 percent; total: 67 percent.
Gross enrollment tertiary: male: 28 percent; female: 20 percent; total: 24 percent.
World Bank datatopics.worldbank.org, 2018 and 2019]
In 2003, an estimated 84 percent of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 44 percent of those eligible were enrolled in secondary school. Today about 92 percent of primary-school-age children are enrolled in school and 62 44 percent of those eligible are enrolled in secondary school. [Source: Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007].
The national school attendance rate in 1982 was 58.9 percent for ages 5 to 9; 20.9 percent for ages 10 to 14; and 1.9 percent for ages 15 to 24. The estimated 1988 student-teacher ratio was fifty-four to one in primary schools, twenty-seven to one in secondary schools, and thirteen to one in universities. Approximately 10 million students of all ages attended school in 1981. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]
According to Human Rights Watch: ““One of Bangladesh’s greatest development successes is the increase in enrollment of both boys and girls in primary education. For 2009-2013, UNICEF reported a male literacy rate of 78 percent and a female literacy rate of 82 percent in Bangladesh. UNICEF also reported that 77 percent of boys and 81 percent of girls were attending primary education. “By secondary school, however, attendance rates have fallen to 43 percent for boys and 47 percent for girls. As the World Bank notes, “With a dropout rate by grade five of about 50 percent, the challenge is not just getting girls in school—it is keeping them there.” [Source: “Marry Before Your House is Swept Away: Child Marriage in Bangladesh”,Human Rights Watch, June 9, 2015]
“Attrition continues to be extremely high during secondary school; for every 100 children beginning class 6, only 35 will pass the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination at the end of class 10, and only 10 will pass the Higher Secondary Certificate examination. While the attendance rate in secondary school is higher for girls than boys, at more advanced levels of education, girls’ achievement begins to fall behind. By the time students register for the SSC exam at the end of class 10, girls are only 46 percent of those registered, and less than 44 percent of those who pass.”
Education Reforms in Bangladesh
Since Bangladesh became independent in 1971, it has endorsed secularism — although recently it has been pressured by Islamists to take on a more Muslim tone — allowed several different types of educational institutions and permitted various kinds of instruction and different languages as instruction to co-exist. During the late 1990s, a relatively large amount of government money was allocated to educate more female students, improve educational facilities, and to incorporate more modern science into the curriculum.
To improve education, the Bangladeshi government adopted an ambitious new national education policy in 2010 that introduced one year of compulsory preschool education, extended the length of compulsory education from grade five to grade eight, and launched a common elementary core curriculum and national examinations at the end of grades five and eight. [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
The government established thousands of new schools, especially in remote rural areas, and has invested a lot of energy and resources in improving education. But due to funding problems and insufficient school infrastructure, the implementation of many reforms has not taken place as quickly as many would like. Classrooms are still overcrowded, and teachers are often poorly trained. The dropout rate is high. Nearly 20 percent of students in 2016 did not complete primary school. At the junior high school level, the dropout rate in 2017 was 38 percent. Forty-two percent of girls dropped out before completing the 10th grade. Poverty and child marriage are at least partly to blame for this. The teacher-student ratio still much higher than the official target ratio of 30:1 (42:1 in middle schools in 2016). [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
School Fees and Lack of Schools Keep Bangladeshi Children Out of School
Even with the reforms school costs are still to high for some Bangladeshi families. According to Human Rights Watch: “Even for children who are in grades or schools where there are no tuition fees, there are associated costs, typically including exam fees, pens, and stationery, and sometimes also uniforms, books and study guides, and private tuition. For many families interviewed by Human Rights Watch, even the smallest associated costs put education out of reach of their children. “There are a lot of parents who would send their children to school if it weren’t for these costs,” an NGO worker in Laxmipur said. “There are a lot of people who can’t even afford a 10 taka [$0.1 exam fee.” [Source: “Marry Before Your House is Swept Away: Child Marriage in Bangladesh”,Human Rights Watch, June 9, 2015]
““Some families interviewed by Human Rights Watch reported that they must make the difficult decision about whether to pay for education or food and sometimes children were too hungry to go to school. “Sanjida H.’s mother took her out of school after class four. “Should I be feeding her, or making her go to school?” her mother asked. “Before she went to school she got hungry but in the morning sometimes there was no food.”
“In rural Noakhali, a community activist said that while families struggle to pay school fees and related costs, “ [t]he biggest problem is that schools are not available. Often there is one school for four or five kilometres and some school teachers are not showing up or are not competent. In some areas, the only school within reasonable proximity was a non-government school, where fees are charged. “Even 20 years ago, there were no schools in this area. Now there are some schools, so this is the first generation getting some education,” a community leader in Noakhali told Human Rights Watch. “There are a lot of primary government schools now, but not secondary schools.” Non-government schools set their own fees. Some are also not accredited by the government, for example, madrasahs which teach only religious subjects, not a general curriculum. In one area of Noakhali that Human Rights Watch visited, the closest government high school was 45 kilometers away.
Teachers and Teacher Training in Bangladesh
Number of pupils per teacher (primary school): 54 in Bangladesh compared to 43 in low-income countries; 16 high-income countries; 15 in the U.S. The student-teacher ratio in primary schools in the late 1990s was 63:1. At that timer there were 189,508 primary teachers 130,949 secondary teachers and 22,447 instructors and professors in higher education. [Source: World Bank, CIA. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., 2006]
Development of the education system has depended largely on the supply of trained teachers. In 1986 about 20 percent of the estimated 190,000 primary-school teachers were adequately trained; at the secondary-school level, only 30 percent of the teachers were trained. Contributing to the shortage of trained teachers was the low socioeconomic standing of educators. The social image of teachers had been gradually eroded, making it difficult to recruit young graduates to the profession. The high proportion of poorly trained teachers led to lower standards of instruction. Despite these problems, the number of secondary-school teachers increased from 83,955 in 1977 to 99,016 in 1986, according to government figures. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]
In 1986 there were forty-nine primary-school teacher training institutes and ten secondary-school teacher training colleges. In addition to regular degree, diploma, and certificate programs, various crash programs and correspondence courses also were available. The Bangladesh Institute of Distance Education (BIDE) also had started an experimental program of teacher training under the auspices of Rajshahi University. BIDE provides in-service training of teachers. In 1990, around 7,000 students, selected from 20,000 applicants, were granted the degree of Bachelor of Education (BED) through BIDE. [Source: *Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
Primary Education in Bangladesh
Primary education consists of eight years and covers grades (classes) one through. It used to consist of five grades. There is also a system of madrasahs (Islamic schools), which are required to follow a curricula established by the national government. The language of instruction is generally Bangla although English is given a high place at many schools, especially elite ones. [Source: Wikipedia; “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”, Thomson Gale, ++]
Adjusted net attendance rate, primary education: 86 percent
Adjusted net attendance rate, one year before official primary entry age; 77 percent
Completion rate, primary education: 83 percent
Attendance in early childhood education: 19 percent
Learning materials at home — children's books: 6 percent
[Source: UNICEF DATA data.unicef.org]
Net enrollment: pre-primary: 41 percent.
Net enrollment primary: male: 92 percent; female: 91 percent; total: 91 percent.
Primary completion rate: male: 64 percent; female: 72 percent; total: 68 percent.
Out of school children, primary age: male: 239,896; female: 447,457; total: 803,733 (2008).
Children out of school: primary school age: 5 percent (2010]
Children out of school, female primary school age: 3 percent.
Trained teachers in primary education: 50 percent of total teachers.
Persistence to last grade of primary, total: 66 percent of those who started (2009).
Net intake rate in grade 1, female: 93 percent of official school-age population (2010)
World Bank datatopics.worldbank.org, 2018 and 2019]
In 2010 education policy introduced a unified, mandatory elementary school cycle of eight years, followed by four years of secondary education, beginning in 2011. As part of the policy children must enter elementary education at the age of six and are expected to have previously attended at least one year of preschool at the age of five or younger. As a result of this and other changes, pre-elementary enrollment soared from 11 percent in 2009 to 40 percent in 2017, according to the World Bank. Most preschool education is provided by private institutions, mostly NGOs like BRAC and others, as well as by mosques, community organizations, and centers attached to elementary schools. In the late 2010s, more of an effort was made to standardize preschools and make them more homogeneous. [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
There were 45,914 primary schools in the 1990s. Issues affecting primary school include a lack of teachers, low community participation, lack of schools within reachable distances and lack of teaching aids and equipment.
History of Primary Education in Bangladesh
The base of the Bangladesh school system has been primary education. The government reported a total of nearly 44,000 primary schools enrolling nearly 44 million students in 1986. Recognizing the importance of increasing enrollments and improving quality, the government made universal primary education a major objective of its educational development plans, which focused on increasing access to school, improving teacher training, and revising the primary school curricula. As a result, the share of primary education by the mid-1980s increased to about 50 percent of the public education expenditure. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]
Although enrollment in the entry class rose over time, the ability of the primary education sector to retain students in school and increase the literacy rate did not match government goals. Throughout the system a high annual dropout rate of 20 percent existed in 1988. Studies suggested that no more than 10 to 15 percent of those attending primary schools retained a permanent ability to read and write. The Third Five-Year Plan (1985-90) envisaged reducing the rural-urban gap in education, establishing facilities for the enrollment of 70 percent of children of primary-school age, and placing emphasis on keeping children in school longer.*
The primary school-age population in Bangladesh has been hurt high dropout rates and low completion rate, especially among girls. Many reports in the 1990s mentioned that more than 50 percent of students drop out at the elementary level. A great deal of effort has been made to improve these situation and statistic indicate a great deal of headway has been made.
Programs set up to improve primary education included increasing in enrollment, providing more classrooms, with the goal of at least five classrooms per school, more teachers, improving teacher training plan, increasing the amount of learning materials, and reviewing the training and conduct of teachers. The Tana County Resource Center was established to provide on-the-job and advanced training for teachers. The problems that these programs aimed to improve persist. [Source: Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
Elementary School Curricula and Education Quality in Bangladesh
Elementary education is provided free by public schools and open to all children at the age of six. Enrollment rates have increased significantly over the years, but universal, basic education is still a distant goal, especially in rural areas, where schools may be in poor condition and difficult to reach. Children still have to drop out of school to help with agricultural chores. [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
Primary school education is provided by government schools, authorized private institutions, community schools and madrasah (Islamic schools). There and special needs schools that provide basic education in low-service areas. The primary school curriculum teaches Bangla, Bangladesh studies, English, mathematics, moral studies and Islam, social studies, environmental studies and natural science as compulsory subjects. Vocational subjects may be introduced after grade six.
English has traditionally been taught as a second language in Bangladesh's schools. Most school graduates can speak and understand English. In private schools students begin studying English at a very early age, sometimes before their second birthday.
According to the national education policy, the evaluation and promotion of the first and second grades are based on continuous evaluation, while the third grade has quarterly, semi-annual and year-end examinations. The examination committees of various departments in Bangladesh conduct external examinations in seven subjects for students who have completed eighth grade. In large cities, district-level exams may also be taken at the end of fifth grade. After successfully completing the eighth grade and passing the final exam, students receive the Junior High School Examination Certificate (JSC). In 2018, about 2.7 million students took the JSC exam. The pass rate was 86 percent .
Secondary Education in Bangladesh
Secondary education consists of four years and covers grades nine through twelve. Secondary school used to be divided into three two-year cycles of junior (three years), upper (two years), and higher (two years). After eight years of primary school students may opt out of the the general education track and attend a vocational training school for two years, followed by a higher technical course of two years.Many madrasahs (Islamic schools) offer secondary education. They are required to follow a curricula established by the national government. The language of instruction is generally Bangla although English is given a high place at many schools, especially elite ones. ++
Secondary education statistics:
Adjusted net attendance rate, lower secondary education: 56 percent
Adjusted net attendance rate, upper secondary education: 48 percent
Net enrollment secondary: male: 61 percent; female: 72 percent; total: 67 percent.
Gross enrollment tertiary: male: 28 percent; female: 20 percent; total: 24 percent.
World Bank datatopics.worldbank.org, 2018 and 2019]
The education policy introduced in 2010 and launched in 2011 made four years of secondary education compulsory. In recent years, despite impressive increases in participation in secondary education, Bangladesh’s attrition rate is still high, especially among girls, many of whom drop out of school because of child marriages or parental preferences that boys be educated first. In 2017, enrollment for lower-secondary education was 87 percent but dropped sharply to 53 percent in upper-secondary education, according to UNESCO data. According to statistics from the Bangladesh government, 38 percent of middle school students dropped out in 2016, of which 42 percent were females and 34 percent were males. [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
Secondary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 44 percent of age-eligible students; 42 percent for boys and 47 percent for girls. It was estimated that about 73.3 percent of all students completed their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for secondary school was about 34:1. [Source: “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations”, Thomson Gale, 2007]
In the late 1990s, the Bangladesh National Education Commission outlined the following area that needed improvement in secondary education: 1) better using existing physical infrastructure and adding new facilities; 2) arranging double shifts to better take advantage of existing buildings; 3) shrinking the gender gap by encouraging and rewarding female students and their families; 4) narrowing the urban-rural gap in large agricultural countries; 5) reforming the education system improvement of science, technology and medical education and get away from the British-inherited emphasis on liberal arts. [Source: Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
History of Secondary Education in Bangladesh
Bangladesh had 8,790 secondary schools with 2.7 million students in 1986. Secondary education was divided into two levels. The five years of lower secondary (grades six through ten) concluded with a secondary school certificate examination. Students who passed this examination proceeded to two years of higher secondary or intermediate training, which culminated in a higher secondary school examination after grade twelve. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989 *]
Higher secondary school was viewed as preparation for college rather than as the conclusion of high school. Development efforts in the late 1980s included programs to provide low-cost vocational education to the rural populace. Efforts also focused on the establishment of science teaching facilities in rural schools, as compulsory science courses were introduced at the secondary level. The government also had provided training for science teachers and supplies of scientific equipment. In spite of many difficulties over the years, the number of both secondary schools and students, particularly females, increased steadily. For example, whereas there were 7,786 secondary schools for boys and 1,159 for girls in 1977, the number of boys' schools had decreased to 7,511 while girls' schools had increased to 1,282 by 1986. The number of students increased as well. In 1977 there were 1.3 million boys and 450,000 girls in secondary schools; by 1986 there were 1.9 million boys and 804,000 girls. Enrollment in technical and vocational schools increased in a similar manner. Secondary education for the most part was private but was heavily subsidized by the state budget. Nationalization of private schools was a standing government policy.*
The school-age population in Bangladesh has been hurt high dropout rates and low completion rate. Reports in the 1990s said only four percent of school-age youths at that time completed 12 years of general education. In Bangladesh, school enrollment rates have traditionally dropped drastically after primary school, before secondary. In 1998 about 78 percent of the students that completed fifth grade moved on the first year of secondary school. only 7 million (38 percent of eligible children Gross enrollment in the secondary phase was ). [Source: Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
Types of Secondary Schools in Bangladesh
In the early 2000s (and still largely to some degree today), students freely chose between three types of schools: English secondary schools, Bengali secondary schools and religious schools. English secondary schools are often private schools oriented towards the needs of wealthy and political elites. Even these these schools lack textbooks and well-trained teachers; their English tests are sent to the British Council in the U.K. or Dhaka. Secondary schools in West Bengal in India are government-funded. Compared with secondary schools with intermediate levels of English in Bangladesh, they are free or cheap. [Source: Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
While the majority of elementary school students go to public schools, the opposite is true secondary and high school. 2017, nearly 80 percent of elementary school students enrolled in public institutions, while, according to UNESCO’s statistics, enrollment rates in private schools were 97 percent for secondary schools and 91 percent for upper secondary schools. Although these are among of the highest rates of this kind in the world, it should be pointed out that these schools are not really private schools. Their facilities, equipment and teaching materials are provided by the government, which also pays a lot of teachers’ salaries. Students need good grades to get into high-level higher secondary institutions, which in turn gives them an edge into getting into a university. The competition is tough and university seats are few in number. These institutions are called intermediate colleges and can be stand-alone institutions or colleges attached to a university. [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
In addition to basic education, technical schools and training centers provide vocational classes and basic vocational skills certificate courses along with general middle school courses. Polytechnic schools also offer some Technical and Vocational Education (TVET) courses, which students can take after the 10th grade SSC exam. Formal diploma courses lasting two to four years, covering subjects such as nursing, allied health, engineering, marine technology, agriculture or hospitality. Some offer industrial internships. According UNESCO data, secondary vocational and technical education and training courses is much less popular than general courses. In 2017, less than 9% of high school students signed up for vocational education courses. In Bangladesh, TVET is viewed as second-rate, the quality of the teachers is low, the programs are poorly funded and graduates have a hard time getting god jobs.
There are also about 20,000 madrasahs with an enrollment close to four million students at different levels of education (See section on Islamic schools). In addition to these, more and more international schools teach foreign courses and the British general education certificate courses. According to reports, the tuition fees of these schools averaged US$5,200 in 2017, which makes them largely accessible only to the wealthy or urban elites. The average income per capita in Bangladesh in 2016 was US$1,466.
Secondary School Curricula, Grades and Fees in Bangladesh
Unlike primary school, where education is largely free, secondary schools require students to pay tuition fees, which have risen sharply in recent years. Exams require extra fees, and many parents also pay a lot for private tutoring (see School Life section). In order to alleviate the financial barriers to enrollment, the Bangladeshi government imposed a cap on the increase in tuition fees for private schools in 2016, and provided allowances and tuition subsidies, mainly to girls in rural areas. [Source: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019]
Stefan Trines wrote in World Education News and Review: “Secondary education is divided into a two-year lower-secondary phase (grades nine and ten) and a two-year upper secondary phase, called higher secondary (grades 11 and 12). Students can study in either a general stream, a religious stream (madrasah), or a technical stream. Each stream offers options for further curricular specializations. General programs, for instance, are offered in business, humanities, and science tracks. All programs have a general academic core curriculum that includes Bangla, Bangladesh studies, English, mathematics, and information technology.
“Admission to grade nine requires a minimum grade point average in the Junior School Examination, but admission in the higher secondary phase is competitive. The Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education—the madrasah and the technical examination board—administer two external examinations at the end of each phase, each year. In the general and technical education streams, they are called the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination and the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) examination. A passing score on the SSC exam is required to progress into higher secondary education.
“The final HSC exam includes Bangla, English, and information and computer technology as compulsory subjects in addition to one elective. Examination results used to be graded on a 0–100 percentage scale but are now expressed as a grade point average on a scale of 0 to 5 with a GPA of 1.0 being the minimum passing grade. Independent (private) candidates can sit for the examination three years after passing the SSC exam without enrolling in an intermediate college. More than 1.3 million students took the HSC exam in 2018, of which merely 29,262 achieved the highest possible GPA of 5. The overall pass rate was 67 percent. Examination results are usually announced by the prime minister and can be verified on a website maintained by the MOE.”
Madrasahs (Islamic Schools) in Bangladesh
Bangladesh has a large number madrasahs (Islamic schools), with some of them dating back to pre-colonial times. By one count there are over 20,000 madrasahs that enroll close to four million students at different levels of education. By other estimates there are around 64,000 madrasahs in Bangladesh, if you include the smaller, more informal ones. Madrasahs now outnumber secondary schools. Many of the madrasahs are funded with money from Saudi Arabia and the oil-rich states around the Persian Gulf. Even so, they schools have limited funds and in many cases the boys bring the own bedding, cooking pots and kerosene stoves.
Madrasahs have many students who come from poor households and include the homeless. They are supposed to teach some secular, non-religious subjects in scientific and technological fields. Some are largely financed by public donations. There are two main types: 1) Qawmi madrasahs, independent schools mostly devoted to Islamic study; and 2) Alia madrasahs, state-regulated institutions that teach the standard school curriculum in addition to religious studies. The latter receive government funding and are regulated by the Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board (or Alia Madrasah Education Board). They may provide elementary education (Ebtadayee), secondary education (Dhakil), or higher secondary education (Alim). [Sources: Stefan Trines, World Education News and Review, August 1, 2019; Ashakant Nimbark, “World Education Encyclopedia”, The Gale Group Inc., 2001]
According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics, there were 13,902 Qawmi madrasahs in Bangladesh in 2015, with 1.4 million mostly male students and 9,319 Alia madrasahs with 2.4 million students. In recent years, the number of madrasah students has grown rapidly. They now make up one-third of all school students in Bangladesh. Among their attractions are low fees and low admission standards. A growing interest in Islam of certain schools are also part of the growing appeal of religious schools.
The national government supported Islamic education at several levels for many years. In the late 1980s, efforts were made to modernize the madrasah system and to introduce secular subjects in the madrasah curriculum under the Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board. In 1986 there were 4,118 madrasahs and 638,926 students under the aegis of the government-supervised system. By 1985 forty madrasahs had been established for female students. There were primary, secondary, and postsecondary madrasas, which, except for one in Sylhet run directly by the government, were attached to mosques and dependent on public charity and endowments. Most of these institutions had poor physical facilities and equipment. The objective of madrasah education during the Third Five-Year Plan was to modernize the system through the introduction of science courses. The program included the provision of science laboratories and equipment to 200 madrasahs as part of the ongoing scheme for development of secondary education. In addition, similar facilities were to be provided in a limited way to another 125 madrasas. Furthermore, financial benefits to the madrasah teachers were raised so they would achieve parity with teachers at secular secondary schools. [Source: James Heitzman and Robert Worden, Library of Congress, 1989]
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Bangladesh Tourism Board, Bangladesh National Portal (www.bangladesh.gov.bd), The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Wikipedia and various books, websites and other publications.
Last updated February 2022