ILLEGAL DRUGS IN INDONESIA: USE, TYPES, SMUGGLING, HISTORY

ILLEGAL DRUG USE IN INDONESIA

methamphetamine hydrochloride, known as "crystal meth" in the US and shabu in Indonesia

Illegal drug use in Indonesia is a serious problem, with methamphetamine (locally known as “sabu-sabu”), ecstasy, cannabis, and various new psychoactive substances (NPS) being the most abused drugs. Although cannabis accounts for the largest number of users, the trafficking and consumption of synthetic drugs have grown rapidly, making Indonesia a significant market in the regional drug trade. The government enforces extremely strict anti-drug laws, including severe penalties such as life imprisonment and the death penalty, even for possession of small quantities. [Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]

Methamphetamine is the most prominent synthetic drug, but ecstasy, and ketamine are also widely used. Drug abuse affects a broad cross-section of society, including students and working adults. Bali has its own drug scene — in which cocaine is big part — that is centered on foreigners and tourists. Indonesia has at times declared a “drug emergency,” reflecting the scale of the problem, with millions reported to have used illegal substances in recent years. Its geographic position has also made it a major transit and destination point for drug trafficking networks in Southeast Asia.

Despite its relative proximity to famed “Golden Triangle” drug-producing region where Thailand, Myanmar and Laos meet, Indonesia was neither a major producer nor a major user of illicit drugs before the early 2000s, But since then an increasingly broad niche for designer drugs, such as Ecstasy, has emerged among wealthy youth in the larger cities and meth among the less affluent. [Source: Library of Congress]

Bali, as a booming international tourist destination, provides a base for individual traffickers and transactions. There have been periodic police campaigns in Aceh and Sumatera Utara Province, which are historically the country’s leading producers of marijuana (some of which has long been used traditionally in the local cuisine).

Drug Users in Indonesia

Researchgate

A 2023 survey estimated that around 3.4 million Indonesians use illegal drugs, with roughly 180 out of every 10,000 people aged 15 to 64 experiencing addiction. Data from the early 2010s said that drug users accounted for 2.2 percent of Indonesia’s 240 million people — 3.8 million individuals, an increase from 3.3 million people or 1.9 percent of the population in 2008. Indonesian narcotocs officials said an indication of the higher demand for crystal meth and ecstasy was “the increasing numbers of both shabu and ecstasy pills found in raids by the authorities”. [Source: Dicky Christanto, Jakarta Post, July 5, 2012]

Not all the drug data is consistent. In 2016 it was is estimated that around 1.2 million Indonesians experiment with drugs, accounting for approximately 0.5 percent of the total population. Nurul Ilmi Idris, a professor at Hasanuddin University in Makassar (Sulawesi), revealed that the number of Indonesian drug experimenters has risen from 850,000 in 2008 to 1.1 million in 2011 and to 1.2 million in 2016. [Source: Indonesia Investment, October 24, 2016]

Marijuana, methamphetamine, ecstasy and heroin have traditionally been most abused illegal dugs in Indonesia, Heroin was relatively popular in the mid-1990s. However, due to a shortage of supply, fewer Indonesians consume heroin today. This is partly the result of Indonesia's tough stance on drug abuse. A sample of drug users in Jakarta in the early 2000s found that 40 percent of them carried the AIDS virus. Among imprisoned addicts in Bali the rate around the same time was 53 percent.

The number of Indonesians injecting illegal drugs fell from 230,000 in 2008 to 70,000 in 2011. However, the use of psychoactive prescription drugs in Indonesia actually rose over the same period. The abuse of prescription medications, including antidepressants and painkillers such as Somadril, Subutex, Subuxone, Calmlet and Tramadol, is particularly prevalent among teenage drug abusers.

Cannabis in Indonesia

Cannabis is strictly illegal in Indonesia. All plants belonging to the cannabis genus, as well as every part of those plants—including seeds, fruit, fibers, and processed forms such as marijuana, resin, and hashish—are classified as narcotics. Possession can result in a minimum prison sentence of four years, often accompanied by significant fines. The law also prohibits all derivatives of cannabis, whether for medical or recreational use, including hemp, CBD, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), hashish, and cannabis-infused edibles. Even so cannabis has traditionally been used in northern Sumatra as a flavoring for food (See Aceh Below) .[Source: Wikipedia]

Today, it remains one of the most tightly controlled substances under Indonesian law, grouped alongside drugs like heroin and methamphetamine. Despite strict regulations, cannabis is still the most widely used illicit drug in the country, with an estimated two million users reported in 2014.

Aceh Besar Police raided a marijuana plantation in the hills of Lam Apeng Village, Seulimum District, Aceh Besar in 2015; At least 8,000 marijuana plants ready for harvest were found on a two-hectare plot. The owner of the plantation allegedly fled when police arrived at the scene

In Indonesia, an estimated 1.4 per cent of the adult population were past-year cannabis users in 2019; in Thailand, the figure was 1.3 per cent. [Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), World Drug Report 2021]

Traditionally, cannabis had a range of uses across the archipelago. In early periods, it was likely utilized both as a source of fiber and as a mild intoxicant, although it was less commonly consumed than substances such as tobacco, opium, or betel. In Aceh, in northern Sumatra, cannabis was more deeply integrated into local practices, where its leaves were often mixed with tobacco and smoked for their intoxicating effects. While cultivation was most common in Aceh and surrounding regions, evidence suggests that cannabis was also grown in other parts of the Dutch East Indies, including Batavia (modern-day Jakarta), Buitenzorg (now Bogor), and Ambon.

History of Cannabis in Indonesia

Cannabis has been documented as early as the 10th century in regions such as Java and Aceh. In 1927, the Dutch colonial government officially banned the substance, and this prohibition continued after Indonesia gained independence. Since the 1970s, cannabis has been a central focus of the country’s anti-drug campaigns.

In some areas, cannabis was also used for medicinal purposes. In Ambon, for example, the roots were reportedly consumed as a treatment for gonorrhea, while the leaves were brewed into tea to relieve asthma and chest pain associated with pleurisy. Observations from the German-Dutch botanist G. E. Rumphius noted that among Muslim communities, cannabis leaves mixed with tobacco could produce a range of psychological effects, from heightened aggression to feelings of sadness and melancholy.

By the late 19th century, cannabis had even appeared in advertisements in the Dutch East Indies, where it was marketed—primarily to European audiences—as a medicinal product, often in the form of cannabis cigarettes. Despite these earlier uses and perceptions, modern Indonesia enforces a strict prohibitionist stance, treating cannabis as a dangerous narcotic with severe legal consequences for its possession, distribution, or use.

Cannabis Curry and Coffee in Aceh

cannabis coffee, Aceh

In Aceh, particularly in the remote hill regions of northern Sumatra, cannabis (marijuana, ganja) grows naturally and has been farmed with little cultivation. The fertile highland soil allows the plant to grow easily after sowing, without fertilizer or intensive care. Despite repeated police eradication efforts, including the burning of large fields, cannabis has continued to reappear, partly because seeds disperse easily and regrow within months. [Source: Nurdin Hasan, Aceh Globe, February 10, 2012; Petty Elliott]

Although cannabis is illegal in Indonesia and carries severe penalties, its use has historically persisted in parts of Aceh, especially in culinary traditions. In the past, cannabis—specifically its seeds—was secretly used as a flavoring in certain Acehnese dishes, most notably gulai kambing (goat curry). Vendors and cooks emphasize that only the seeds were lightly fried and added for aroma and tenderness, not the potent leaves, which were typically sold elsewhere.

Coffee mixed with cannabis is a popular drink in Banda Aceh, the capital of Aceh. AFP reported: Agus slowly stirs a wooden paddle through a wok filled with coffee beans and cannabis, carefully roasting the mixture while staying alert to the risk of police raids in Indonesia’s Aceh province. His illicit blend is popular with local customers and buyers from elsewhere in Southeast Asia, who pay around one million rupiah (about $75) per kilogram. [Source: Haeril Halim, AFP, February 5, 2020]

Methamphetamines Use in Indonesia

Methamphetamine, locally known as shabu-shabu, sabu, or batu, is the primary illicit drug threat in Indonesia and the second most commonly used drug after cannabis. Indonesia serves as both a major destination and a transit hub for methamphetamine trafficking in Southeast Asia, with consumption widespread across the archipelago. [Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]

A 2014 survey by the National Narcotics Board (NNB) indicated that about one-third of the estimated 5 million drug users in Indonesia used crystal methamphetamine, with significant prevalence among laborers, students, and night shift workers. At one time it was sold relatively openly in Jakarta nightclubs. While cannabis is often cited as the most used, methamphetamine is considered the biggest threat due to its addictive nature and widespread usage. Once concentrated in urban centers like Jakarta, Medan, and Bali, methamphetamine use has spread extensively, with rising usage rates reported in Kalimantan and Sumatra.

The vast majority of methamphetamine users in Indonesia smoke the drug using homemade bongs or pipes, known as cangklong. Despite the high number of users, only a small percentage access rehabilitation services. The government’s treatment capacity has traditionally been focused on heroin, leaving a gap in specialized care for methamphetamine addiction. Harm Reduction Limitations: While harm reduction services exist, many primarily focus on injecting drug users (heroin) rather than the predominantly smoking population of methamphetamine users.

Methamphetamines Trafficking in Indonesia

Indonesia is a primary destination for drug syndicates, with large amounts of methamphetamine smuggled from the "Golden Triangle" (Myanmar and neighboring countries) via the Malacca Strait. Some some meth has been produced in Indonesia. Large meth labs in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines were closed in 2006. Authorities continue to report rising seizure numbers, suggesting that while law enforcement has increased, the influx of methamphetamine into the country is rising, with significant amounts seized in 2024 and 2025.

The country has seen massive, record-breaking seizures, such as the 8.5 tons seized in 2022, placing it among the top countries globally for meth seizures. In 2018, Indonesia seized 1.6 tonnes of crystal methamphetamine from a ship near the island of Batam.

In April 2021, Indonesian authorities seized 2.5 tonnes of crystal methamphetamine after a series of raids linked to an international smuggling ring spanning Afghanistan and Southeast Asia, police said. According to Reuters the huge drug haul, estimated to be worth $82 million, was found after raids in three locations, in Jakarta and in Aceh in Sumatra, National Police Chief Listyo Sigit Prabowo said. “"We revealed that approximately 2.5 tonnes of methamphetamine drugs... entered Indonesia," he told a news conference, where the drugs were displayed in plastic bags. [Source: Reuters, April 29, 2021]

“Police said one person was killed after resisting arrest during the raids and 18 had been arrested, including 17 Indonesian nationals and one Nigerian citizen. Agus Andrianto, head of criminal investigations at the national police, said the drugs entered Indonesian waters from Afghanistan a month earlier and were shipped from Afghanistan via Malaysia.

Ecstasy Use and Production in Indonesia

Ecstasy (MDMA) use is a growing concern in Indonesia, where the drug is classified as a Group 1 narcotic and is therefore illegal for all purposes, including medical use. Despite the country’s extremely strict drug laws—under which trafficking and serious offenses can lead to the death penalty—Indonesia has become an important market and transit point for ecstasy within Southeast Asia. [Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]

In recent years, the use of ecstasy has increased significantly. Ecstasy is especially popular in urban nightlife settings, where it is commonly associated with club culture and is frequently used by young people. In January 1997, authorities endorsed the death penalty for ecstasy trafficking. Michelle Leslie, an Australian model, was caught with two Ecstasy pills in 2005. She later pleaded guilty to possession, was sentenced to time served, and was released.

In 2003, a Dutch citizen of Chinese descent was sentenced to death for operating what police say was the largest ecstacy factory in Southeast Asia. He was found with 8,000 ecstacy tablets and ecstasy-making equipment which police said had churned out 15,000 pills a day for at lest three years. More than 300,000 pills and 444 grams of ecstasy was seized in 1996. Indonesia’s strategic location has contributed to its role as a regional hub in the ecstasy trade. In addition to being a major destination for trafficked drugs, there has also been a rise in local production of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS).

In May 2007, an Indonesian court sentenced nine men to death for producing millions of pills of the drug ecstasy in what police said was one of the biggest illegal drug production plants ever uncovered. According to Al-Jazeera The convicted men include five Chinese nationals, a Frenchman, a Dutchman and two Indonesians. The sentence handed down was harsher than that rendered a year before by a lower court, which ordered the execution of the two alleged Indonesian ringleaders while handing down lesser sentences to the others. Prosecutors said during the trials in 2006 year that the plant was among the largest ecstasy factories ever found in Southeast Asia, and recommended execution. They said the factory in Serang, 60 kilometers west of Jakarta, was capable of producing one million ecstasy pills, worth $11 million a week. The plant was raided by Indonesian police in late 2005. [Source: Al-Jazeera, May 5, 2007]

Indonesian police launched a Nov. 11, 2005, raid following months of surveillance with Australian, U.S. and Chinese drug enforcement officers. Some of the pills the factory produced were destined for overseas markets, prosecutors said. They said police seized an estimated US$142 million worth of ecstasy, methamphetamines, ketamine and chemical ingredients from the site. According to documents about the factory raid, a hydrogenerator and other laboratory components arrived in Indonesia in May 2005 and were set up in an abandoned warehouse in a 1.6-hectare compound in the town of Banten one month later. Within weeks, law enforcement agents identified large quantities of ketamine in the African country of Malawi, which then passed by ship through China and Singapore before arriving in Indonesia disguised as soy beans. [Source: The Jakarta Post, November 7 2006]

Drug Treatment in Indonesia

Indonesia faces serious challenges related to drug control and treatment. Overcrowding in prisons is a major issue, driven in large part by the high number of drug-related convictions. At the same time, there is a growing recognition of the need for more effective and accessible treatment for individuals with substance use disorders. Reports have also highlighted the persistence of drug trafficking within prison systems themselves, complicating efforts to reduce addiction and enforce strict controls. [Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]

Limited funding for rehabilitation has left many of the country’s estimated one million addicts with few formal options. As a result, some turn to alternative methods such as herbal treatments and faith-based healing. In one example from a village in Java, a rehabilitation center uses herbal baths, traditional remedies, prayer, and counseling to help individuals recover from addiction. One such patient, a young man struggling with a long-term methamphetamine addiction, seeks recovery through these traditional practices. Facilities like the one in Purbalingga claim to have treated hundreds of people using non-medical approaches. While these centers provide accessible care, they also highlight the gap left by insufficient state-supported rehabilitation services. [Source: Al Jazeera and agencies, August 2, 2016]

Experts argue that Indonesia needs a more effective and humane approach to drug treatment. According to advocates, there should be a clearer distinction between forced rehabilitation and voluntary, community-based programs that respect human rights. They emphasize that treatment should be evidence-based and tailored to the needs of individuals rather than relying on coercive or unproven methods.

At the same time, the Indonesian government continues to prioritize strict law enforcement. President Joko Widodo has described drugs as a major national threat and has intensified anti-drug efforts, including harsh penalties for traffickers. However, while spending on enforcement has increased, funding for rehabilitation programs has declined, limiting access to proper treatment for many users.

Although Indonesian law calls for rehabilitation for those caught with small amounts of drugs, many end up in overcrowded prisons instead. Government officials acknowledge the problem but face budget constraints that restrict the number of people who can receive treatment. Critics argue that imprisoning drug users rather than treating them worsens the situation and makes recovery more difficult.

Heroin in Indonesia in the 1990s and Early 2000s

Heroin addiction was a problem in Indonesia in the 1990s and early 2000s. Laine Berman wrote: “With no studies on actual numbers of users in Indonesia, approximations are based on the numbers of individuals seeking treatment. In 1995 someone in the government claimed that .065 percent of the population were using drugs, although it is unknown what the number was based on. With a total population of 200 million at that time, that made 130,000 drug users. Many realized that this was just the tip of the iceberg and multiplied this number by 10. This is how the “official” number of 1.3 million addicts was calculated. Most of these are between the ages of 13 and 25. [Source: “From Jungkies to Jihad”, Laine Berman, Inside Indonesia (progressive quarterly), Collingwood, Australia, July-September 2003]

“The drug of choice in Indonesia at that time was putauw: street-grade heroin. Accessibility was never a problem, with drugs being sold from many roadside food stalls, malls, campuses, and from street vendors. Elementary school children have reported they can buy putauw from the guy who sells bottled water in front of their school. The drugs were taped to the bottom of the bottle. Local press reports showed how widely known the “hot spots” are for buying drugs in Jakarta, with many naming areas, streets, markets, even specific hotels for purchasing each kind of drug.

In Indonesia, junkie (spelled jungkie) style is associated with freedom, openness, honesty, and cuek. It is tied to the hippie clothes and influences of the American 1960s and '70s and glorified by celebrities, musicians, and artists who dress and act in a “relaxed” manner. Jakarta department stores and glossy spreads in teen magazines label grunge, punk, or hip-hop clothes as “New Jungkies Style.” To “live jungkies” means to live freely, unimpeded by societal pressures. In an Indonesia plagued by corruption and cronyism, alienated youth praise jungkies style and its cuek demeanour.

Drug Smuggling in Indonesia

International syndicates from Iran, Malaysia and China were active shipping drug into Indonesia in the early 2010s as a final destination and as a transshipment stop on the way to other places such as Australia. Among the most common ways to smuggle drugs was swallowing them, hiding them in courier’s shoes or luggage. Or “shipping the drugs under different names to cargo terminals in various seaports and airports” according to Narcotics division director of the National Police Detective Agency, Brig. Gen. Arman Depari. [Source: Dicky Christanto, Jakarta Post, July 5, 2012]

Jatmiko, head of the intelligence section at the airport customs office told the Jakarta Post that 17 out of 20 recent foiled drug smuggling attempts were through cargo delivery services at the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, while the other three were detected at the arrivals gate. “By sending drugs through delivery services, “the syndicate doesn’t risk losing the courier if the delivery is spotted by authorities”, Jatmiko said.

In January 2012, according to the Jakarta Post, an Iran-based international drugs ring hired a cargo vessel to stop at a secluded area off Ujung Genteng Beach, Sukabumi in West Java. They then transferred the drugs to waiting local boats that were not required to go through immigration and custom inspections.The police intercepted the transfer, and a shootout claimed three lives. Three Iranians and a Thai citizen were arrested and prosecuted.

At that time crystal meth from the Iranian narcotics ring was considered the best in the market. “Pure ‘Iranian shabu’ can be worth US$214 per gram, by far the most expensive in town,” the courier told The Jakarta Post in a recent interview.

The National Narcotics Agency (BNN) has recorded that in 2011 authorities managed to confiscate A) 826,096.25 ecstasy pills, a 94.6 percent from more than 424,000 pills in 2010; B) 1,092,029.09 grams of crystal meth, year, a rise of 208.4 percent from over 350,000 grams in 2010.

Bali Cocaine Dealer

Bali attracts a lot of arty, hippie, alternative types who are associated with doing drugs so it is no surprise there is a drug scene there even with the harsh penalties. The island has a busy bar and nightclub scene where party drugs such as cocaine and Ecstasy are bought and sold between foreigners.

When Rafael, a Brazilian surfer, first arrived in Bali, he quickly became captivated by the island’s lifestyle. What began as a holiday soon turned into a permanent stay, as he chose the island over returning home. Drawn by the promise of endless surfing, nightlife, and freedom, he soon realized he needed a steady source of income to sustain this lifestyle.[Source: “Snowing in Bali” by Kathryn Bonella, CNN, February 25, 2013, the book is based on interviews with prisoners at Bali’s Kerobokan Prison]

That opportunity came in the mid-1990s, when another Brazilian offered him fast money for working as a drug courier. At the time, many Western dealers—often tourists who had decided to stay—were making large profits from the island’s growing drug trade. Rafael quickly moved up the ranks, eventually becoming one of Bali’s leading cocaine traffickers.

At the height of his operation, Rafael was reportedly moving around 20 kilograms of cocaine per week, with millions of dollars flowing through his hands over a 15-year period. His success allowed him to live extravagantly, embodying the image of a wealthy drug boss, complete with luxury cars, expensive jewelry, and a lavish lifestyle fueled by drug money.

He invested heavily in personal luxuries, once paying $33,400 in cash for a Rolex watch. He also built a dream beachfront home near Canggu, securing its location within a restricted 100-meter coastal zone by paying a $15,000 bribe. The house reflected his wealth and excess, featuring indulgent details such as a diving board extending from his bedroom balcony.

Rafael’s lifestyle revolved around constant parties, travel, and spending, with money flowing freely on designer goods, vehicles, and first-class flights. Other traffickers followed similar paths, using their profits to purchase villas, bars, restaurants, and shops, often blending illicit income with legitimate business ventures. Some of these establishments continue to operate, occasionally still supported by underground drug money. This environment was sustained in part by widespread corruption, which allowed large sums of unexplained cash to circulate with little scrutiny.

Bali Drug Mules

Drug traffickers in Bali use highly inventive methods to smuggle narcotics, including hiding drugs inside windsurfer booms, surfboards, backpacks, kite sails, hang gliders, and even the doors of rental cars. According to accounts from major dealers, Bali’s massive tourism industry plays a crucial role in enabling these operations. Around 2.9 million visitors arrive on the island each year—nearly equal to its population—allowing traffickers to blend in with ordinary tourists carrying similar equipment as they move drugs in and out. [Source: “Snowing in Bali” by Kathryn Bonella, CNN, February 25, 2013, the book is based on interviews with prisoners at Bali’s Kerobokan Prison]

Blending in is essential, as any inconsistency can raise suspicion. In one case, a 27-year-old Brazilian traveler heading to Bali was stopped by customs because he carried surfboards but lacked a suntan, making officials suspicious. A full search revealed 7.3 kilograms of cocaine hidden in his luggage. The incident highlights how traffickers must carefully match the appearance and behavior of typical tourists to avoid detection.

Tourists also provide cover for drug distribution once substances are on the island. Dealers often operate in crowded areas such as beaches and nightlife districts. One trafficker described burying 250 grams of cocaine on Legian Beach among tourists to avoid detection. When he returned the next night to retrieve it for a client, he encountered heavy police presence. Fearing arrest after being followed for nearly two miles, he ultimately dumped the drugs—worth about $20,000—into the ocean to avoid being caught.

Traffickers also rely on covert delivery techniques carried out in plain sight. Drugs are passed in backpacks on busy beaches or concealed in vehicles, while some dealers boast of transporting cocaine in cars with doors packed full of drugs—joking that their vehicles were “worth a Ferrari.” At the street level, many impoverished locals sell fake drugs in areas like Kuta, Legian, and Seminyak, calling out to tourists and offering substances that may actually be harmless pills.

Despite this visible street trade, the tourist market represents only a small part of the overall drug economy. The largest profits come from international trafficking networks that move drugs from Bali to other countries. Cocaine is particularly valuable as it is shipped onward to markets such as Australia and Japan, where demand is high and prices are significantly greater.

The profit margins are enormous. A kilogram of cocaine can cost as little as $1,000 to $2,000 in South America, but sells for between $20,000 and $90,000 in Bali, depending on supply—referred to locally as whether it is “snowing in Bali.” In Australia, the same kilogram can fetch up to $250,000. Bali’s role as a transit hub allows traffickers to switch couriers to avoid suspicious passport stamps, making it an ideal stop in lucrative regional drug trafficking networks.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources:“Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006; National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, Indonesia Tourism website (indonesia.travel), Indonesia government websites, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated April 2026