COFFEE IN INDONESIA: HISTORY, KINDS, PRODUCTION, KOPI LUWAK

COFFEE IN INDONESIA

avocado cube copas coffee passion

Indonesia is the fourth largest producer and exporter of coffee in the world. Most of the countries that produce coffee are located close to the equator. This is true with Indonesia. It soils, precipitation amount and geography are also well suited to the growing and production of coffee. Coffee is widely grown on the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. Some of the world’s best arabicas come from Indonesia, especially Sulawesi. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

Jakarta and other major cities are filled with coffee shops and cafés. International chains like Starbucks (US), Coffee Bean (Singapore), and Segafredo (Italy) are commonly found in shopping malls. Ironically, much of Indonesia’s coffee is exported, processed abroad, and then re-imported to be sold under these global brands at international prices. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

Some of the best true Indonesian coffee can be enjoyed at small warung kopi (roadside stalls), where kopi tubruk is typically served in a glass. Be forwarned, Indonesians often drink their coffee very sweet, and at these stalls the grounds are left to settle at the bottom of the glass, so the last sip requires caution. Ordering kopi susu (coffee with milk) may also surprise you, as it is often made with canned sweetened condensed milk. There is very little pasteurized milk in Indonesia which is one reason why condensed milk, which is very sweet, is sued.

Generally Sumatrans they just dump a spoonful of ground coffee in a cup and the add hot water with no filtering process. You need to let the coffee sit for a while so ground sink to the bottom of the cup before drinking otherwise it has a very gritty texture. Some jokingly call it “mud coffee,” since you may need to strain the grounds through your teeth as you drink.

Powerful coffee, known as 'kopi' in Indonesia, was introduced by the Dutch in 1699. If you travel to Indonesia, visiting a coffee plantation can be a rewarding experience. Even without organized tours, many plantation owners are happy to let visitors observe harvesting and processing.

Kinds of Coffee in Indonesia

coffee growing in Pagaralam, South Sumatra

Coffee in Indonesia is usually pitch-black, sweet, thick and rich with the coffee grounds floating on top. It is often very strong, Sometimes it is served black with super-sweet condensed milk on the side. Indonesian coffee is made by boiling water, ground coffee and sugar and has a gritty texture and is served in a glass. A lot of grit is left at the bottom of the glass.

Indonesian 'kopi' is sometimes mixed with chicory or chocolate. Kopi tubruk refers to hot sugary coffee. It is made with coffee, sugar and hot water poured straight in the glass without separating out the coffee residue. Kopi susu is served hot with condensed milk and is the Indonesian version of Café au lait

One of the most infamous coffees from Indonesia is Kopi Luwak, which is harvested from the droppings of civet cats. This distinctive coffee is highly sought after by aficionados looking for a unique experience. While it used to be extremely rare and difficult to find, a variety of brands are now sold in better supermarkets.

Indonesian coffee terms
Kopi (coffee)
Kopi kopi pahit (black coffee)
Kopi susu (coffee with milk)
Kopi manis or kopi dengan gula (coffee with sugar)
Perkebunan kopi (coffee plantation)
Kopi tubruk (coffee steeped in a glass with grounds)
Kopi luwak (coffee collected from civet cat droppings)

Starbikes' — Indonesian's Poorman’s Starbucks

In Jakarta, a sharp contrast defines the coffee scene. Wealthy Indonesians relax in air-conditioned cafés like Starbucks, while on the crowded, traffic-filled streets, low-income residents rely on mobile coffee vendors known as “Starbikes.” These bicycle-based sellers move through busy areas, serving instant coffee from flasks strapped to their bikes. [Source: Arlina Arshad, Agence France-Presse, January 23, 2012]

coffee shop in Surabaya

For most Indonesians, the high price of café coffee—around $3 per cup, equal to more than a day’s wages for many—is out of reach. Street vendors instead offer coffee for about 30 cents, making it affordable to a far larger segment of the population. Despite being unlicensed and often chased by police, these vendors represent a grassroots business model within Indonesia’s informal economy.

Many vendors, like Sambang, migrate from rural areas to the city in search of better opportunities. After paying a startup fee for a bicycle and supplies, they sell popular brands such as Kapal Api coffee while earning modest incomes of around $100 per month. It can take months just to repay initial debts to suppliers, who sometimes also provide basic housing.

These vendors cater mainly to working-class customers—taxi drivers, students, and low-level office workers. A key part of their appeal is pairing coffee with cigarettes, reflecting a widespread cultural habit in Indonesia. Competition is intense, so vendors adopt creative strategies such as sharing phone numbers for delivery orders and building loyal customer bases.

Despite the challenges, the vendors maintain a sense of community, gathering at shared spots and warning each other about police. While modern coffee chains offer comfort and status, they remain inaccessible to most Indonesians. For many, like motorcycle taxi drivers, a single café drink costs as much as a week’s food—making the humble “Starbike” not just a convenience, but a necessity.

Coffee Shops in Aceh

Mulyadi, a coffee stall owner in Aceh in nrothern Sumatra, , begins his day at dawn, preparing dozens of glasses of black coffee for his customers. His small café quickly fills with men from the village, who arrive after morning prayers to enjoy their first drink of the day. On the tables sit steaming cups of coffee alongside traditional cakes, while cigarette smoke drifts through the air. [Source: Hotli Simanjuntak, The Jakarta Post, July 13 2010]

In Aceh, gathering at coffee shops is an essential part of daily life for men, often taking up much of the day. Conversations range widely—from family matters to global affairs—turning these cafés into informal hubs of communication. According to local leaders, coffee shops function almost like community centers where news, ideas, and opinions are exchanged.

This strong coffee culture is believed to trace back to Arab traders who once visited the region. During the conflicts of the 1980s and 1990s, however, coffee shops took on an even deeper role. They became neutral spaces where people from all sides—including members of the Free Aceh Movement and the Indonesian military—could meet informally without fear. At a time when many men were suspected of involvement in the conflict, spending time in coffee shops also helped them avoid suspicion at home.

Today, coffee shops remain vital information centers in village life. They are often the only places that subscribe to newspapers, drawing visitors eager for the latest news. Satellite television adds another layer of attraction, especially in rural areas where not everyone can afford home access.

In urban areas like Banda Aceh, coffee shops have evolved further. Many now offer free Wi-Fi and operate around the clock, serving a wide range of customers. Despite these modern touches, the way coffee is prepared and its distinctive taste remain largely consistent with traditional methods. Different cafés even attract specific groups—car enthusiasts, civil servants, activists, and teenagers—turning them into informal “offices” where discussions often lead to real projects and initiatives.

With Sharia law in Aceh limiting nightlife options such as clubs, coffee shops have become the primary place for socializing and relaxation. After the devastating 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, they also provided comfort and gathering spaces for international aid workers, gradually changing social norms. What were once largely male-only spaces have become more inclusive, with women, families, and young people now frequenting them. Today, Aceh’s coffee shops continue to thrive as lively, welcoming spaces at the heart of community life.

World’s Top Coffee Producing Countries

World’s Top Producers of Coffee, Green (2020): 1) Brazil: 3700231 tonnes; 2) Vietnam: 1763476 tonnes; 3) Colombia: 833400 tonnes; 4) Indonesia: 773409 tonnes; 5) Ethiopia: 584790 tonnes; 6) Peru: 376725 tonnes; 7) Honduras: 364552 tonnes; 8) India: 298000 tonnes; 9) Uganda: 290668 tonnes; 10) Guatemala: 225000 tonnes; 11) Laos: 185721 tonnes; 12) Mexico: 175555 tonnes; 13) Nicaragua: 158759 tonnes; 14) China: 114000 tonnes; 15) Costa Rica: 76008 tonnes; 16) Tanzania: 60651 tonnes; 17) Philippines: 60641 tonnes; 18) Cote d’Ivoire: 59412 tonnes; 19) Venezuela: 57100 tonnes; 20) Madagascar: 42220 tonnes. [Source: FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization (U.N.), fao.org. A tonne (or metric ton) is a metric unit of mass equivalent to 1,000 kilograms (kgs) or 2,204.6 pounds (lbs). A ton is an imperial unit of mass equivalent to 1,016.047 kg or 2,240 lbs.]

World’s Top Producers (in terms of value) of Coffee, Green (2019): 1) Brazil: Int.$6288668,000 ; 2) Vietnam: Int.$3518950,000 ; 3) Colombia: Int.$1849612,000 ; 4) Indonesia: Int.$1590164,000 ; 5) Ethiopia: Int.$1008395,000 ; 6) Honduras: Int.$995406,000 ; 7) Peru: Int.$759160,000 ; 8) India: Int.$667651,000 ; 9) Uganda: Int.$530961,000 ; 10) Guatemala: Int.$470177,000 ; 11) Nicaragua: Int.$363603,000 ; 12) Laos: Int.$346652,000 ; 13) Mexico: Int.$346284,000 ; 14) China: Int.$250761,000 ; 15) Costa Rica: Int.$175733,000 ; 16) Cote d’Ivoire: Int.$141465,000 ; 17) Madagascar: Int.$137417,000 ; 18) Philippines: Int.$125472,000 ; 19) Venezuela: Int.$118503,000 ; [An international dollar (Int.$) buys a comparable amount of goods in the cited country that a U.S. dollar would buy in the United States.] 20120527-800px-Carte_Coffea_robusta_arabic.png robusta (r) and arabica (a) producers

World’s Top Exporters of Coffee, Green (2020): 1) Brazil: 2372633 tonnes; 2) Vietnam: 1231314 tonnes; 3) Colombia: 694928 tonnes; 4) Indonesia: 375671 tonnes; 5) Honduras: 363400 tonnes; 6) Germany: 340060 tonnes; 7) Uganda: 329373 tonnes; 8) Belgium: 241340 tonnes; 9) Ethiopia: 230246 tonnes; 10) Peru: 213236 tonnes; 11) India: 205809 tonnes; 12) Guatemala: 189489 tonnes; 13) Nicaragua: 149117 tonnes; 14) Mexico: 100767 tonnes; 15) Costa Rica: 69654 tonnes; 16) Tanzania: 57641 tonnes; 17) Laos: 50620 tonnes; 18) China: 49169 tonnes; 19) Kenya: 43386 tonnes; 20) Cote d’Ivoire: 40263 tonnes. [Source: FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization (U.N.), fao.org] 20120527-800px-Coffee_consumption_map-en.svg.png

World’s Top Exporters (in value terms) of Coffee, Green (2020): 1) Brazil: US$4973728,000; 2) Colombia: US$2453943,000; 3) Vietnam: US$1943554,000; 4) Honduras: US$980247,000; 5) Germany: US$972497,000; 6) Indonesia: US$809679,000; 7) Ethiopia: US$742823,000; 8) Guatemala: US$651964,000; 9) Peru: US$639931,000; 10) Belgium: US$617996,000; 11) Uganda: US$514192,000; 12) India: US$461672,000; 13) Nicaragua: US$438202,000; 14) Mexico: US$355653,000; 15) Costa Rica: US$325620,000; 16) Kenya: US$208991,000; 17) United States: US$148656,000; 18) Tanzania: US$129215,000; 19) China: US$123557,000; 20) Papua New Guinea: US$115163,000

History of Coffee in Indonesia

Coffee is not native to the Indonesian archipelago. In the 17th century, during Dutch colonial rule, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) introduced Arabica coffee plants to the region. Their goal was to cultivate coffee locally and challenge the global Arab monopoly on the trade. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

The Dutch colonial government first established plantations around Jakarta (then Batavia), expanding south to areas such as Sukabumi and Bogor. Over time, plantations spread across Java and into parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi. Vast forest areas were cleared to make way for cultivation, and the rapid growth of coffee production led to major infrastructure development, particularly in Central Java. Roads and railways were built to transport coffee beans from inland plantations to ports for export.

Before World War II, Central Java had a highly developed rail network that carried not only coffee but also sugar, pepper, tea, and tobacco to the port city of Semarang. Meanwhile, regions such as East Timor and Flores also produced coffee under Portuguese rule, using different Arabica root stock from that introduced by the Dutch.

In the late 19th century, the industry suffered a devastating blow when coffee rust spread across plantations in Indonesia, as well as in Sri Lanka and Malaysia. This fast-spreading fungus, which appears as a yellow-orange powder on the underside of leaves, destroyed entire plantations—especially in Java. Some areas in eastern Indonesia were less affected due to their different plant varieties. In response, many plantation owners abandoned coffee in favor of crops like tea and rubber, which were seen as more resilient; some of these plantations are still in operation today.

The Dutch attempted to recover by introducing Liberica coffee, but it proved short-lived due to its own vulnerability to disease. Eventually, they adopted the more resistant Robusta variety, which remains dominant and accounts for about 90 percent of Indonesia’s coffee production today.

The upheavals of World War II and Indonesia’s subsequent independence struggle brought further changes. During the war, plantations were briefly controlled by occupying Japanese forces. After independence, many were taken over by the new Indonesian government or abandoned as colonial owners fled. Today, roughly 92 percent of Indonesia’s coffee is produced by smallholder farmers and cooperatives rather than large plantations.

Coffee Production in Java, Sumatra and Sulawesi

Indonesia has three main coffee-growing regions — Java, Sumatra and Sulawesi — each known for distinct varieties and flavor profiles. In recent years, newer regional varieties have also gained recognition, including Arabica Wamena, Aceh Gayo, Flores Bajawa, and Kenaliwa coffees, further highlighting the diversity and richness of Indonesia’s coffee heritage. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

Java is the most populous island in Indonesia and a major coffee producer. It is especially famous for its high-quality Arabica beans, which thrive at elevations above 1,500 meters in cool temperatures of 16–20°C. However, Arabica plants are sensitive to disease, requiring careful cultivation. Java is also renowned for its aged coffee, often called Old Java, where beans are stored for two to three years. This aging process enhances the coffee’s strong, full-bodied flavor, a hallmark of fine Arabica.

Sulawesi was formerly known as Celebes. Much of the coffee here is processed using the dry method. The most celebrated growing area is Toraja, located in the mountainous interior at around 1,500 meters above sea level. Coffee cultivation in Toraja relies on traditional methods, with smallholder farmers hand-picking and sorting the cherries to ensure only the best are used. Due to the rugged terrain and scattered planting, yields are relatively low—about 300 kilograms per hectare—but the quality is exceptional. Toraja Arabica is prized for its full body, caramel-like aroma, and clean, crisp finish. Its distinctive flavor is shaped in part by the region’s soil and surrounding vegetation. Because of limited production, Toraja coffee is highly sought after worldwide, particularly in Japan, with the finest grades largely reserved for export.

Sumatra is known for producing some of the world’s most distinctive coffees, including Mandheling and Ankola (a less commonly used trade name for Arabica). Mandheling coffee, grown near Padang on the island’s west coast, is characterized by low acidity and a rich, heavy, almost syrupy body with complex flavors. Both Mandheling and Ankola coffees are typically dry-processed and valued for their deep, earthy profiles. The majority of coffee from Sumatra is grown around the Lake Toba district in North Sumatra with it's high altitude. There is another major growing area near Lake Tawar in Aceh province in the far tip of Sumatra. The best Sumatran coffee is exported.

Among Indonesia’s specialty coffees, Toraja and Mandheling are considered the most sought after. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

Coffee Growing in Indonesia

Two main species dominate global coffee production. Coffea arabica (Arabica) accounts for about 75–80 percent of the world’s coffee and is prized for its smooth, complex flavor. Coffea canephora (Robusta), by contrast, is hardier and more resistant to disease, but generally produces a stronger, more bitter drink with higher caffeine content. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

Coffee plants can grow up to 10 meters tall if left unpruned, though they are usually trimmed to make harvesting easier. The trees typically flower twice a year, producing clusters of blossoms along their branches. However, only about a quarter of these flowers develop into coffee cherries. Arabica plants are self-pollinating, while Robusta depends on cross-pollination. After pollination, the fruit remains nearly dormant for six to eight weeks before entering a rapid growth phase, expanding from a tiny pinhead to a full-sized cherry in roughly 15 weeks.

Harvest seasons vary by region. In Sumatra, the main season runs from November to January, while in Java it typically occurs from late July to September. In Sulawesi, harvesting generally takes place between May and September or October, with peak activity in the middle of this period. In some areas, the main harvest is concentrated between July and September, although early picking may begin as soon as May depending on weather conditions.

Sulawesi’s key coffee-growing regions—such as Toraja, Kalossi, Mamasa, Enrekang, Gowa, and Sinjai—are located at elevations of about 1,300 to 2,000 meters. Coffee from these highlands is predominantly Arabica, known for its rich body and distinctive spicy, earthy, and chocolate notes. Because of the steep terrain and small-scale farming methods, cherries are usually picked by hand. Farmers often practice “double-picking,” carefully selecting only the ripest cherries and removing defects to ensure high-quality beans. Environmental factors also play an important role. Flowering generally occurs around March to April, and harvest timing can shift depending on climate patterns such as El Niño, which may delay the season but sometimes results in larger yields. [Source: Google AI]

Coffee Processing in Indonesia

Once coffee cherries ripen and their outer skin turns red, harvesting begins. Large estates may use strip-picking with machinery, but smaller plantations typically rely on hand-picking. This method is preferred because it allows workers to select only the best cherries while removing damaged or pest-affected ones. At this stage, the freshly picked cherries must be processed quickly—usually within two days—to prevent spoilage. This careful approach is commonly used for coffee from Toraja. [Source: Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia — www.sca-indo.org, expat.or.id]

The next step is processing the cherries into “green coffee,” which can be done using either the dry or wet method. The dry method is widely practiced in Sumatra and by smallholder farmers in Java, Bali, and Flores. In this process, beans are spread out under the sun on concrete surfaces or mats, usually in layers no thicker than five centimeters. They must be turned every couple of hours to ensure even drying and proper moisture levels before hulling, while also being protected from rain.

Roasting then transforms green coffee into the familiar brown, aromatic beans sold in stores. Most roasting machines operate at temperatures around 550°F (about 288°C). As the beans heat to roughly 400°F (204°C), they begin to brown and release their oils, known as caffeol, which give coffee its distinctive aroma and flavor. Constant movement during roasting prevents burning and ensures even heat distribution, and the beans must be cooled at precisely the right moment. Under-roasted beans can taste flat or doughy, while over-roasted beans become thin, bitter, and burnt.

Not all producers have their own roasting equipment, so some rely on third parties. Because roasting causes moisture loss and reduces the beans’ weight, it can be difficult to verify that the same beans emerge from the process. As a result, some Indonesian producers closely supervise roasting to ensure quality, as there have been cases where lower-grade beans—or even roasted corn—were mixed in, which can be difficult to detect once processed.

Kopi Luwak

Kopi luwak—named from the Indonesian words for coffee (kopi) and civet (luwak)—is one of the world’s most expensive and controversial coffees. It is made using beans that have been eaten and partially digested by the Asian palm civet, then collected from its droppings. Originating in Indonesia, this unusual process is said to produce a cup that is exceptionally smooth, less bitter, and often described as having chocolate-like notes.[Source: Paul Watson, Los Angeles Times, July 13, 2007]

Because of its rarity and unique production method, kopi luwak commands extremely high prices. In international specialty markets, it can sell for hundreds of dollars per kilogram—sometimes reaching around $600 per pound—while a single cup in luxury hotels, such as those in Hong Kong, may cost about $30. It has even been associated with elite consumers, including members of the British royal family.

Authentic kopi luwak largely depends on wild civets in Southeast Asia, particularly those roaming coffee plantations in Indonesia. This reliance on natural foraging, combined with the limited number of civets, keeps production low and contributes to its exclusivity.According to local lore, the discovery of kopi luwak dates back to the Dutch colonial period. Indigenous farmers, who were required to hand over harvested coffee to colonial authorities, noticed that civets consumed the coffee cherries and left behind undigested beans. These beans became the only coffee the workers could access, and over time they realized that the resulting brew had a distinctive and appealing flavor.

Norimitsu Onishi wrote in the New York Times: The civet is a nocturnal, furry, long-tailed catlike animal that prowls Southeast Asia's coffee-growing lands for the tastiest, ripest coffee cherries. The civet eventually excretes the hard, indigestible innards of the fruit — essentially, incipient coffee beans — though only after they have been fermented in the animal's stomach acids and enzymes to produce a brew described as smooth, chocolaty and devoid of any bitter aftertaste. As connoisseurs in the United States, Europe and East Asia have discovered civet coffee in recent years, growing demand is fueling a gold rush in the Philippines and Indonesia, the countries with the largest civet populations.

Difficulty Making Kopi Luwak from Civets in Indonesia

In Indonesia, civets are struggling to survive as expanding human populations reduce their natural habitat. For farmers working small plots of pepper, cacao, coffee, and rubber on remote hillsides, finding civet droppings is often more trouble than it is worth. Civets also eat other fruits—such as cacao, bananas, and papaya—but the remains of these are not valuable, and it can be difficult to tell what is actually in the scat. Even experienced collectors can be misled by droppings from other animals mixed in for added weight. [Source: Paul Watson, Los Angeles Times, July 13, 2007]

Even when farmers know civets have eaten their coffee cherries, there is no guarantee the animals will leave their valuable droppings on the same land. At the same time, civets are often viewed as pests. Some attack chickens, and their size and sharp claws can intimidate villagers. Because civet meat is also eaten in some areas, many farmers see the animals as more of a nuisance than a resource.

Despite this, collectors can earn slightly more from civet droppings than from regular coffee—though still very little compared to profits made by international traders. Much of the kopi luwak sold abroad is reportedly mixed with ordinary coffee to increase profits in markets such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States. The trade is highly competitive, and those who know where to find genuine civet droppings often guard that knowledge closely.

Some producers have tried to build businesses around kopi luwak but face major challenges. One small-scale producer in southern Sumatra invested heavily in processing civet droppings into coffee using traditional methods, roasting beans over wood fires and grinding them by hand. Despite producing large quantities, he struggled to secure reliable buyers and lost significant savings after offering free samples to potential clients who never followed through. He also resisted selling to larger buyers who offered low prices, hoping instead to export his product independently.

After repeated setbacks and fraud from both local and foreign traders, he considered a different approach: farming civets. He captured several Asian palm civet and kept them in enclosures, feeding them ripe coffee cherries along with other fruits and milk. Some animals died or escaped, leaving only a few remaining. His long-term vision is to raise enough funds to create a protected, semi-natural habitat where civets could roam safely while producing high-quality, traceable kopi luwak.

Ironically, the high market value of kopi luwak could benefit civet conservation, yet the animals’ reputation has suffered in the past. In 2003, civets were linked—though controversially—to the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in China, where they were also sold as food. Today, their survival depends on balancing economic demand with ethical and sustainable practices.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources:“Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006; National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, Indonesia Tourism website (indonesia.travel), Indonesia government websites, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated April 2026