VOLCANOES IN FLORES: LEWOTOBI, ROKATENDA AND THE PALU'E PEOPLE

VOLCANOES IN FLORES

Locations of very active (A-type) volcanoes on Flores Islan Researchgate

Flores, Indonesia is home to a chain of about 15 active and dormant volcanoes. These peaks are known for both their beautiful scenery and their eruptions. Some can be reached as part of sunrise tours; other by tough multi-hour treks. some of the island's most famous and spectacular volcanic destinations:

Mount Kelimutu is located near the town of Moni. This is Flores' most famous natural wonder. It is celebrated for its three mystical crater lakes that periodically change color (shifting between turquoise, red, green, and black) due to volcanic minerals and gases. The hike is a short, accessible 30-minute walk up well-maintained stairs.

Rokatenda is an active volcano on the island of Palu’e, which is 15 kilometers off the north coast of Flores. It erupted violently in 1928, killing several hundred people.

Mount Inierie is the highest volcano on Flores and features a strikingly symmetrical, pyramidal peak. It is at 2,245 meters high and is located in the Ngada region (near Bajawa. The crater cane be reached by an intense, 3 to 4-hour challenging morning climb. It requires a local guide, but rewards you with breathtaking, panoramic island views.

Mount Ebulobo is also located in the Ngada region. This dramatic, steep stratovolcano offers a rigorous hiking experience through lush forests and high-altitude terrain.

Mount Lewotobi is located in the southeastern part of the island. It is a twin-volcano (consisting of Lewotobi Laki-laki and Lewotobi Perempuan) has been highly active.

Mount Ranakah is situated in the Manggarai Regency, east of Labuan Bajo. This 2,140-meter mountain features a steep 9-km trail to the summit where you can find a telecommunications station and sweeping natural vistas.

Lewotobi Volcano

colored lakes of Kelimutu

Lewotobi volcano at eastern end of Flores Island is one of the most frequently active volcanoes in the region. A 1703 meter (5,587 foot) stratovolcano, it has two peaks arranged on a northwest by southeat line separated by two kilometers km and a 1232 meter-high saddle. This has goven the twin volcano its name Lewotobi "husband and wife" (also spelled Lewetobi). [Source: volcanodiscovery.com]

The two peaks correspond to the Lewotobi Lakilaki and Lewotobi Perempuan stratovolcanoes. Lewotobi Lakilaki (1584 meter) has a summit crater of 400 meters diameter open to the north. Lewotobi Perampuan (1703 meters)'s crater is 700 meter wide. Background:

Lewotobi Lakilaki has been frequently active during the 19th and 20th centuries, while the taller and broader Lewotobi Perempuan has erupted only twice in historical time. Small lava domes have grown during the 20th century in the summit craters of both volcanoes. A prominent flank cone, Iliwokar, occurs on the east flank of Lewotobi Perampuan.

Lewotobi Eruptions

Typical eruption style: Explosive Lewotobi volcano eruptions: 2003, 2002, 1999, 1991, 1990, 1971, 1970, 1968-69, 1939-40, 1935, 1932-33, 1921, 1914, 1909-10, 1907, 1889, 1869, 1868, 1865, 1861, 1859(?), 1675 Lewotobi Lakilaki and Lewotobi Perempuan twin volcano

2003 Eruption: Lewotobi volcano erupted on May 30 2003. Ash plumes were seen 200 m above the summit and light ash fall occurred at the observatory 5 km from the crater. Small eruptions continued in June and July, producing ashfall in the villages of Bawalatang, Duang, and Boru. On 31 August, a more powerful explosion produced an ash plume to a height of ~2.5 km above the summit that drifted W, incandescent lava bombs ignited forest fires up to 1 km radius from the crater. Ash fall damaged crops on nearby farmland. Following that 2003 eruption, according to the daily Jakarta Post, at least 565 villagers living on the slopes of Lewotobi were affected by sulfur and ash emissions. The residents experienced respiratory problems and skin afflictions. A moderate explosion occurred at the volcano on 12 October 2002, the first activity since 1999. .

1999 Eruption: Small ash explosions began at Lewotobi volcano on 21 March 1999. The activity consisted typically of weak steam and ash emissions reaching a few 100 m above the summit, sometimes interrupted by more powerful explosions. In April and May, mild strombolian activity with visibly incandescent lava was observed, ejecting bombs to 50-75 m above the crater. A stronger explosion, accompanied by a blast, occurred on 1 July 1999. The explosion threw glowing bombs to more than 500 m distance from the crater, igniting forest fires that burnt vegetation up to 2.5 km north of the volcano. Minor ash fell occurred in an 8 km radius, including the villages of Boru, Bawalatang, and Watukubu. No reports of further activity after July are available, when the eruption probably started to die out.

Lewotobi erupting in December 2023

1991 Eruption: Mild eruptive activity resumed at the summit crater in the first half and until around July/August of 1991. Mild ash emission and strombolian activity was observed between March-July. The highest reported ash plumes reached about 800 m and incandescent material reached 100 m height above the crater. It was reported that hot ash fall (smelling of sulfur) onto nearby areas caused residents to flee during eruptions in July.

1939 Eruption: Lewotobi volcano erupted on 17 December 1939, exactly 6 years after the start of the previous eruption. It is reported that the eruption caused lapilli fall "like hen eggs" at the Hokeng mission post for 10 minutes.

1933 Eruption: A powerful ash eruption occurred at Lewotobi volcano on 17 December 1933. Incandescent bombs were visible from Doeang and Nobo.

Lewotobi Laki Laki Eruption in 2025

Mount Lewotobi Laki Laki erupted for a second straight day in mid October 2025, spewing towering columns of hot ash that later blanketed villages. Associated Press reported: No casualties were immediately reported. Indonesia’s Geology Agency said an eruption in the early morning sent lava and clouds of ash up to 10 kilometers (6 miles) high. Another burst less than nine hours later sent a towering mushroom-shaped ash cloud as high as 8 kilometers (nearly 5 miles) into the air. [Source: Associated Press, October 15, 2025]

The rumbling volcano on remote Flores island erupted three times the day before. Avalanches of searing gas clouds mixed with rocks and lava fell down the slopes in the morning and midday eruptions. The third eruption of the day lit up the night sky with glowing lava and bolts of lightning. Several villages have been blanketed in ash and debris, Hadi Wijaya, head of the Center for Volcanology and Geological Disaster Mitigation, said in a statement. He warned residents to be vigilant about heavy rainfall that could trigger lava flows in rivers originating from the volcano.

The volcano 1,584-meter (5,197-foot) mountain has been at the highest alert level since an eruption on June 18, and an exclusion zone was set at 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) from the crater as eruptions became more frequent. Its major eruption in November 2024 killed nine people and injured dozens. It also erupted in March.

Lewotobi Eruption in 2020

An eruption of Mount Ile Lewotolok in November 2020 sent local people fleeing their homes. Reuters reported: The volcano spewed ash and smoke as high as four kilometers into the sky and forced more than 2,700 residents to seek refuge, the country's disaster mitigation agency said. Source: Reuters, November 29, 2020]

Raditya Jati, a spokesman for the agency, said in a statement that the eruption from the Mt. Ile Lewotolok volcano, about 2,600 kilometers east of Indonesia's capital of Jakarta, had caused panic among those living nearby. About 2,780 people from 26 villages had sought refuge, although no casualties have so far been reported, Jati said.

Muhammad Ilham, a 17-year-old who witnessed the eruption, told Reuters that resident nearby were "panicked and they're still looking for refuge and in need of money right now". Indonesia's Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation Center said on its website that the area near the volcano is likely to be inundated with "hot clouds, lava stream, lava avalanche, and poisonous gas".

Kasbani, the head of the center, told Reuters that the status of the volcano was raised to the second-highest level on Indonesia's four-tier alert system due to "increasing threats".There are only three other volcanoes with this level, the agency said. These include the Merapi volcano on the island of Java and Sinabung on Sumatra, which erupted this month.

Egon Volcano

Egon volcano is one of the active volcanoes of Flores. After about a century of being dormant, the 1703-meter- high (5,587 foot-high) stratovolcano suddenly roared back to life in 2004, triggering the evacuation of about 7000 people. The barren, sparsely vegetated summit region has a 350-m-wide, 200-m-deep crater that sometimes contains a lake. Other small crater lakes occur on the flanks of the cone. A lava dome forms the southern summit. Solfataric activity occurs on the crater wall and rim and on the upper southern flank. Reports of historical eruptive activity prior to explosive eruptions in 2004 are inconclusive. A column of "smoke" (or ash) was often observed above the summit during 1888-1891 and in 1892. Strong "smoke" emission in 1907 reported in 1917 was considered by the Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World (Neumann van Padang, 1951) to be an historical eruption, but it is likely that it had been confused with an eruption on the same date and time from Lewotobi Lakilaki volcano. Eruptions have included explosions and strong fumarolic activity. [Source: Volcano Discovery]

In April 2008, Yemris Fointuna wrote in the Jakarta Post, “Mount Egon in Sikka regency, East Nusa Tenggara, erupted, forcing about 1,000 residents from nearby villages to flee their homes. Despite the eruption, hundreds of thousands of voters in Sikka went to polling stations to elect a new regent and deputy regent. About 20,000 people in Waigete and Mupitara subdistricts are facing water shortages because their wells have been contaminated by dust and other particles spewing from the crater. The eruption, which lasted for more than 30 minutes, forced those living near the foot of the volcano to flee their homes. There have been no reports of casualties. [Source: Yemris Fointuna, Jakarta Post, April 17 2008 /+/]

“Head of social affairs at the Sikka administration, Sius Kasu, said by telephone in Maumere on Wednesday his office had taken emergency steps to assist residents, including dispatching some 20,000 masks, bottled water and medicine. "The emergency team has arrived at the location bringing with it the relief aid," he said. He said his office had yet to determine the number of evacuees, but surmised that residents living in the two districts nearest the volcano had been directly impacted by the eruption. Waigete subdistrict chief Welhelmus Cyrillus said around 1,000 residents in Egon, Baukrenget, Natakoli and Watermage villages had fled to safer areas since Tuesday night. /+/

“Mount Egon erupted without warning the day before the regency election. During the eruption, the 1,700-meter-high volcano spewed ash hundreds of meters into the air and sent out dust and debris to a radius of 20 kilometers from the crater. An official from the Volcanology and Geological Disaster Mitigation Center in Bandung, West Java, Endang Elias, said the center recorded six deep volcanic quakes and one shallow quake since Tuesday night. Ash and rocks continued to spew out of the crater. A local reporter who was in Egon village, Kristo Embu, said by phone most residents had chosen not to evacuate. The regency election was held without disturbance Wednesday. "Eligible voters turned up to the polling stations wearing mask," said Kristo. A number of residents said they were in urgent need of water. "All the wells have been contaminated by ash. We desperately need potable water for our daily needs," said a resident in Waigete, Marthen Moru. Egon erupted in 2004 and 2006 after a 75-year lull. It experienced a massive eruption in 1925, but there is no information on casualties.” /+/

Rokatenda Volcano

Rokatenda, also known as Paluweh, is an active a stratovolcano that forms the small island of Palu'e, which located 15 kilometers (nine miles) north of Flores Island. The volcano rises approximately 3,000 meters (9,840 feet) from the sea floor, although its summit stands only 875 meters (2,871 feet) above sea level. Despite its modest elevation above the ocean surface, it is the highest point on Palu'e Island and dominates the island's landscape. [Source: Wikipedia]

According to Volcano Live: Paluweh is an andesitic stratovolcano in the Lesser Sunda arc, formed by subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate. The volcano's activity is characterised by dome growth, phreatic to phreatomagmatic explosions, and pyroclastic flows. Historical eruptions often involve flank vents and rapid dome extrusion. Magmas are calc-alkaline andesites typical of arc settings. The island's steep slopes and coastal location facilitate lahars and potential tsunamis from flank collapse. Monitoring by the Indonesian Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG) includes seismicity and visual observations due to frequent activity.

Rokatenda erupted violently in 1928, accompanied by a devastating tsunami, killing several hundred people. The volcano's broad summit area contains several overlapping craters, some reaching up to 900 meters (2,950 feet) in diameter. The summit region also features a number of lava domes that have formed through repeated volcanic activity. Several vents are located on the volcano's flanks along a northwest-trending fissure, providing additional pathways for eruptions and lava emissions.

Rokatenda Eruptions

Rokatenda has experienced numerous eruptions throughout its recorded history. Eruptions with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 3 occurred around 1650 (plus or minus 50 years), in 1928, and again in 1972. On 16 January 2005, signs of renewed volcanic activity prompted authorities to place the volcano on alert status. The most significant historical eruption occurred between 4 August and 25 September 1928. This VEI 3 eruption generated both an earthquake and a tsunami, affecting the small island community. At that time, the island's population was only about 266 people; by 2023, it had grown to nearly 10,000 residents.

The volcano became increasingly active again in late 2012, producing frequent ash emissions. In response, authorities established a 3-kilometer (1.9-mile) exclusion zone around the volcano and evacuated residents living nearby, relocating many to Maumere on Flores Island. During the first eight months of 2013, activity remained intense, with repeated ash plumes rising to heights of 2 to 3 kilometers (1.2 to 1.9 miles) above the volcano. Other volcanic events included lava dome collapses, explosions, avalanches, and dangerous pyroclastic flows. Previously, the last known eruption was in 1985.

A major eruption occurred on 10 August 2013, lasting approximately seven minutes. The eruption sent ash about 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) into the atmosphere and resulted in fatalities. Initial reports indicated that six people were killed, including three adults and two children, while the age of the sixth victim was not immediately confirmed. The bodies of the adults were recovered from Ponge Beach in Rokirole Village, but the remains of the children were not found. Some island residents had chosen to remain despite mandatory evacuation orders, having become accustomed to the volcano's frequent activity, a decision that increased their vulnerability when the eruption occurred.

Palu'e Island — the Home of Rokatenda Volcano

Palu'e (Palu) is the island dominated by Rokatenda Volcano. It is located off the north coast of Flores at 8° 19 S and 121° 44 E. Michael P. Vischer wrote: The conically shaped and nearly circular island extends over 72 square kilometers. It rises gradually from the north shore and drops sharply to the sea in the south, forming the mountain Manu Nai (875 meters) and the adjoining volcano of Rokatenda. The people of Palu'e refer to the mountain as "Ili" and to the volcano as "Mutu." Periodic volcanic activity has marked mainly the southern part of the island. Throughout the island, along the lines of volcanic fissures, there are fumaroles and solfataras. [Source: Michael P. Vischer, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993]

Deep erosive ravines run down all sides of the mountain to the sea, creating steeply inclined ridges. Remains of primary forest are found at higher locations and in several isolated patches. Most of the secondary tree coverage has been removed for agricultural purposes. Apart from two minor springs on the western mountain slopes, there is no surface water on Palu'e. The island is part of the arid tropics. There are clearly demarcated dry and rainy seasons. The latter lasts from the month of December through March. There is an average annual rainfall of 180 centimeters. ~

In the early the 2000s, the total population of the island was about 14,000, some 2,500 of whom have recently been transmigrated to coastal locations on central Flores. Small groups have also established coastal settlements on several of the Lesser Sunda Islands. The population density is approximately 180 persons per square kilometer. Because of volcanic activity, about one-third of the island's surface is not suitable for settlement or agriculture. ~

Palu'e People

The Palu'e people are historical inhabitants of Palu'e Island. Also known as the Ata Nuha, Ata Nusa, Ata Pulo, Hata Lu'a and Hata, they are usually referred to by the Indonesian term "Orang Palu'e." They speak their own distinct language, called Sara Lu'a, which is classified as a member of the Bima-Sumba Group and which belongs to the Central Malayo-Polynesian Branch of the Austronesian Language Family. Its use is confined to the island. In every one of the twelve traditional domains of Palu'e a mutually intelligible but different dialectical variation of Sara Lu'a is spoken. [Source: Michael P. Vischer, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993 ~]

In 1511-1512, after the seizure of Malacca, Afonso de Albuquerque sent out a fleet to discover the Moluccas. On their way along the Flores north coast the Portuguese ships passed Palu'e. A panoramic drawing was made by the pilot Francisco Rodrigues, picturing the island against the background of Flores. In their mythology, all groups of the island ultimately trace their origins to a place located far away in the west. The final stages of these myths are concerned with the crossing from the Lio region on the Flores north coast. To this day, these groups honor long-standing alliances in warfare with a number of ethnic groups of central and east Flores. In some cases they retain rights to land use and ritual sites on Flores.

Nineteenth-century sources mention the island in the context of piracy and slave trade. Palu'e boats were said to be raiding the Flores Sea and well-armed Bugis vessels. Ancestral treasures on Palu'e are often associated with these past activities and ties with Bugis groups of the kingdom of Bone on Sulawesi are still recognized. Toward the end of the century the Dutch military staged several unsuccessful punitive expeditions against coastal villages. In 1906 the island was pacified with the help of an indigenous coastal group and forced to accept the supremacy of the raja of Sika, the Dutch-appointed indigenous ruler of Maumere Regency on Flores. Later holders of this office were recruited from the above-mentioned coastal group and educated by the Catholic mission (Society of the Divine Word, or SVD) on Flores. Only in some cases were members of descent groups holding traditional political offices appointed as village headmen.

In 1928 the volcano Rokatenda erupted, killing several hundred people and devastating large parts of the island. In the eyes of the people this eruption had been caused by Dutch attempts to dig for water on the island. Missionary activity by the Flores-based SVD mission began in the first quarter of the century and was mainly aimed at collectively baptizing the population and educating future native administrators and religious instructors.

Administratively, Palu'e is now classified as a subdistrict (perwakilan) and incorporated into the district (kecamatan) of Maumere on Flores. Its remoteness from the administrative center, periodic volcanic eruptions of various intensities, and the notorious lack of water have, for the last thirty years, made the people of Palu'e a target for transmigration to Flores. Since 1982 these efforts by the provincial government have been partially successful, and transmigration settlements have been established on the Flores north coast. To date only one desa has been moved to its new location.

Palu'e People and Rokatenda Volcano

The lives of Palu'e peoplehave been deeply intertwined with Rokatenda and involves several key cultural and geographical elements. The Palu'e people have traditionally believed the volcano is the dwelling place of their ancestral spirits. When Rokatenda rumbles or erupts, villagers have historically interpreted the activity as their ancestors communicating with them, often performing local ceremonies and making offerings (such as chicken livers) to maintain harmony and protect their communities.

The nearly 10,000 residents of Palu'e are distributed across several traditional mountain and coastal villages. There are no paved roads or vehicles; life relies primarily on farming, fishing, and trade. The Palu'e universe is layered, with seven levels constituting the terrestrial realm and eight levels making up the firmament. One myth recounts how the ties between the skies and the island became severed. According to the “Encyclopedia of World Cultures”: In ritual terms, Palu'e is imagined as a living body with streams of blood circulating beneath the surface, the seaboard representing its "feet" and the mountain its "head." One abode of the ancestors is inside the volcano, where the island, with all of its domains, is replicated. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are met with the exclamation "We are here!" in order to remind the mythical animals on whose back the island rests of the existence of human beings. Lunar eclipses are caused by the morning star spearing the moon.

In some locations volcanic steam is trapped in earth catchments and condensed in bamboo poles. Rainwater tanks are beginning to replace the traditional ways of water collection during the rainy season. Volcanic spots with high ground temperature are used as earth ovens for the preparation of various types of bean and tuber. Throughout the island the lontar palm (Borassus flabellifer or B. sundaica) is tapped twice daily and is the most important source of fluid. An islandwide ancestral prohibition on the distillation of palm juice is observed. ~

Beginning in late 2012, increased volcanic activity and a growing lava dome produced dangerous ash plumes and pyroclastic flows. A deadly eruption on August 10, 2013, forced evacuations and tragically claimed six lives when hot ash and debris flowed into a northern beach area.Relocation Due to the persistent volcanic activity, Indonesian disaster officials and humanitarian groups have faced the difficult task of encouraging or organizing evacuations to the main island of Flores (such as Maumere or Ende). However, many Palu'e residents have deep attachments to their ancestral land and often prefer to stay despite the risks. [Source: Michael P. Vischer, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993]

Ritual Life of the Palu'e People

According to the “Encyclopedia of World Cultures”: In analogy to the growing "stone-and-earth" motif, every domain has as its ritual centers two monolithic structures (tupu) that are increased in size with every ceremonial cycle. The tupu is the place where the priest-leader can, by way of ritual and offering, establish contact with the first ancestors and with the Supreme Being. The Supreme Being stands at the origin of everything and is referred to as "SunMoon/Stone-Earth" (era-wula/watu-tana). There are several categories of supernatural being: nonpersonified spirits associated with specific places such as trees or rocks (nitu), and named personified spirits associated with natural phenomena such as rain and drought. By far the widest range of spirits dwells outside the island and incorporates both indigenous concepts and those from outside groups. The human soul has essentially two aspects, one that remains with the body until death and another, referred to as the "shadow-soul," which can leave the body during its lifetime and take on a number of human and animal disguises. It is this soul that the witch employs for his flight. Dogs bark at disguised witches, thereby providing the means for differentiation between these and other types of supernatural beings. Ancestral spirits that have not been able to leave the island are of a similar type. [Source: Michael P. Vischer, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993]

The theme of ritual heat and coolness pervades Palu'e ritual and ceremonial life. All new things are hot, breaches and mistakes of hada create heat, and the general accumulation of negative influences generates heat. Such heat is noxious to human beings and needs to be cooled down regularly by way of ritual. The cooling agent is mostly coconut milk. All ritual cooling is accompanied by an offering of food and/or blood. Blood offerings are ranked according to ritual potency in the following order: water buffalo, pig, chicken, dog. Most ceremonial events involve the exchange of goods. Not all domains practice the sacrifice of water buffalo. A domain can also lose its capacity to do so if attempts to raise sacrificial animals have repeatedly been unsuccessful. The ritual cycle extends over a period of five years, beginning with the ceremonial purchase of yearlings from allies on Flores and ending with the sacrifice at the ritual centers of the domain.

The twelve traditional domains (tana) on Palu'e constitute ceremonial, political, and territorial entities. They can be divided into two categories according to the practice of different ceremonial systems. The seven tana practicing the offering of water-buffalo are referred to as tana laja karapau, "domains of water-buffalo blood." The five domains lacking the water-buffalo sacrifice are called tana laja wawi, "domains of pig blood," in reference to their main sacrificial animals. All domains on Palu'e are linked by a system of political cum ritual alliance and enmity that crosscuts the adherence to one or the other form of sacrifice. Alliances between domains are often reinforced by huju-bako relationships between the houses of the respective priest-leaders. Each domain classifies its traditional allies in warfare according to their size and strength as either conceptually male or female, thereby implying a position of relative superiority or inferiority.

The population of a domain varies from 300 to 1,500 people; its size ranges from 2 square kilometers to 16 square kilometers. Only in recent times have efforts been made to stabilize boundaries by means of cement markers. Traditionally the territory of a domain is defined by a set of place-names, but boundaries are periodically renegotiated through warfare. The firstborn son of the senior house of the leading kunu of "father people" in a domain is usually appointed to the position of lakimosa. He is the traditional ritual, political, and juridical head of the domain. As such he receives, as a form of tax, part of the harvest of commoner houses as well as specific cuts of animals sacrificed in the domain. In most domains the former obligation no longer applies. The appointment to lakimosa status is made by the preceding lakimosa at the moment of his death and is subject to confirmation by the traditional allies of the domain. In those cases where a second kunu of "father-people" successfully upholds claims to full lakimosa status, separate spheres of influence and separate ritual centers are maintained. Ceremonial cycles are synchronized and in decisions affecting the whole of the domain the leading lakimosa takes precedence. In most cases traditional political authority is entirely

1928 Eruption and Tsunami of Rokatenda

The 1928 eruption of Rokatenda was a highly explosive VEI 3 event. Occurring between August and September 1928, the disaster is infamous for massive landslides that triggered devastating tsunamis, claiming over 160 lives and heavily destroying coastal villages. [Source: Gunung Bagging, volcanolive.com]

The eruption was incredibly violent, producing roughly 19.5 million cubic meters of ash and pumice, forming a new lava dome, and generating craters in the collapsed southern summit region. The explosive magnitude was significant enough to release a massive volume of aerosols into the atmosphere, causing a measurable short-term period of global climate cooling in 1929.

The explosive phase caused a section of the volcano to collapse into the surrounding sea, triggering massive landslides. This generated sea waves measured at 5 to 10 meters high, which swept over the island and also hit the northern coast of Flores.

Out of an estimated population of 266 on Palu'e Island at the time, 128 people were killed. Across the region (including the Flores coastline), the death toll reached at least 160 to 165 people, although some early international reports claimed up to 1,000 casualties.

The next serious eruptions occurred in the 1980s, According to Volcano Live: Eruptions began in November 1980 and continued intermittently to the end of January 1981. A new 40 m-diameter vent was formed in early November, located on the upper NNE flank. On 18th January renewed activity occurred at Paluweh. A hot air wave was felt by the inhabitants of two E-flank villages. About 1850 people were evacuated from the danger zone. On 31st January explosions were heard at Kota Baru, Flores Island. New eruptions occurred on 22nd August 1981. Lava and burning rocks were repeatedly erupted, and water temperatures reached 98 deg C at some places around the island. Crops and fishing boats were damaged and people were evacuated. After residents evacuated, pyroclastic flows burnt 36 buildings.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006; National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, Indonesia Tourism website (indonesia.travel), Indonesia government websites, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated May 2026