BALINESE THEATER AND SHADOW PUPPETS

BALINESE THEATER

Masked Balinese performers at temple Kecac Uluwatu, 2014

Dance and drama have traditionally been one and the same on Bali. Depending on how you look at it dancers have traditionally played characters and acted while actors have traditionally danced around a lot. The dances usually tell a story, often an episode of a Hindu epic characterized by fighting off evil gods or demons. (See Separate Article on Balinese Dance).

Drama in Bali is usually derived from a local chronicle called Babad. Drama is estimated to first emerge in 1820. The art rose in the golden era of the Klungkung kingdom at the reign of I Dewa Agung Sakti. At that time, it is known in the form of Arja. Arja later developed into some drama forms in Bali, namely Prembon, Sendratari, and Drama Gong. [Source: Bali Tourism Board]

Despite the strong influence of increasing tourism since the 1930s, Bali's theatrical tradition remains one of the most interesting in the world. For several centuries, Bali has been home to many unique theatrical genres. For over half a century, village communities have maintained many of the old court theater traditions. As a result, the classical tradition has been interpreted according to Southeast Asian standards, which have mainly been dominated by the courts. While preserving traditions, communities have also developed, combined, and renewed them. Many villages have their own specific traditions of music, theater, and dance, and performances can be seen daily. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

Two genres of theatre survive in Bali: the wayang kulit shadow theatre — distinct from its Javanese counterpart in puppet design and musical accompaniment, which uses four gender instruments — and the gambuh court dance-drama, which have preserved the ancient Hindu-Javanese tradition in a possibly more archaic form than any corresponding form of theatre in Java. Between the ninth and the sixteenth centuries Bali had close contacts with East Java, at times belligerent and at times peaceful. Over these centuries, Bali adopted the Hindu-Buddhist court culture of East Java and its various forms of theatre. (See Below). The various forms of masked and unmasked theater imclude topeng, wayang wong, gambuh, and arja.

Ritual and Trance Performances in Bali

Balinese village theater performance, unknown date

Bali is home to many ritual performances that do not correspond to traditional Western notions of theater or dance. These performances are primarily religious rituals full of magical significance for their performers and spectators. While they may include elements typical of theatrical performances, they are rarely intended to provide aesthetic or intellectual pleasure in the modern Western sense. In these rituals, dance and theater always serve religious and magical purposes. They are usually performed in inner temple courtyards in connection with feasts on the calendar. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

The performers are usually nonprofessional, though some forms of Wali may employ professional dancer-actors. In general, dancing skill is of secondary importance. Ritual performances fall into two main categories: ceremonial dances, which are typically ancient sacred dances of indigenous origin, and trance rituals, during which the performers and sometimes the audience fall into a trance. **

The most sacred dances are considered acts of worship or signs of devotion. Due to their nature, they can only be performed in the most sacred part of the temple. Most wali dances are believed to be derived from indigenous traditions, though they later adopted the vocabulary of Hindu-Javanese classical dance. Since the most sacred dances are not meant to be performed publicly, it is understandable that secularized variants have emerged for commercial purposes." **

History of Theater in Bali

Of all the dance and theater forms now performed in Bali, the oldest ritual performances predate the arrival of Hindu-Buddhist culture. The Balinese categorize their performances based on their degree of sacredness. The most sacred are the wali performances, which are off-limits to non-Balinese and outcasts. They are usually held in the most sacred precincts of temples, consisting of several adjacent courtyards. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

Bebali performances are staged in the outermost temple courtyards and are often artistic and open to foreigners. Other types include magical performances that are not temple-related, secular performances, and tourist shows. Most styles of theater and dance are performed with Balinese gamelan music accompaniment. There are many types of gamelan music and ensembles in Indonesia. However, the most popular form of Balinese gamelan is the gamelan gong kebyar, which is generally faster in tempo and more feverish and capriciously accented than the classical gamelan of Java. Most forms of theater rely on classical Balinese dance techniques that partly reiterate old Javanese prototypes. These have developed into a rich, expressive, and dynamic style specific to Bali. Although Balinese theater is open to new influences, its sacred core appears to have remained unchanged over the centuries. **

Actors dressed as giants and evil spirits: :Barong Landung; Jero Gede (black masks) and Jero Luh (white masks), unknown date

Drama Gong is the youngest form of Balinese drama, emerging around 1966 under the influence of Sendratari. It is primarily a comedic, entertainment-oriented theatre that uses fewer performers, simpler staging, and often humorous costumes and accessories. Performed at social events across Bali, Drama Gong became especially popular in the 1980s and remains well liked today, with many active troupes. Drama Gong is a largely spoken theatrical form accompanied by the expressive gong kebyar gamelan. It is staged on a proscenium with painted scenery and melodramatic effects influenced by Western theatre. Its stories are drawn from the Panji cycle, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and Balinese legends, and performances continue to be staged live and broadcast on television.

Balinese theatre remains vibrant and active, with traditional dance and drama continuing alongside new experiments. Although tourism has reshaped performance practices—shifting many shows from ritual calendars to daily presentations and shortening or simplifying dances for visitors—classical dance and theatre have become defining cultural symbols of Bali. Tourist demand now influences performance structure, and major events such as the Bali Arts Festival function largely as international showcases rather than purely religious celebrations. At the same time, strong efforts are underway to preserve sacred and classical traditions. Institutions such as the Akademi Seni Tari Indonesia and KOKAR work to study, revive, and transmit older forms, while cultural leaders have restricted the most sacred wali dances from commercial performance. This balance between adaptation and preservation helps explain the enduring vitality of Balinese theatre: it remains open to change while maintaining its sacral core and deep significance for Balinese society.

Arja and Prembon

Arja is Bali’s oldest dramatic form, first performed in the 1820s. Its name derives from the Sanskrit reja, meaning “something beautiful,” reflecting the refined blend of dance, sung dialogue, and traditional music that defines the genre. Performers wear ornate costumes adorned with gold, silver, and flowers. While Arja serves as popular entertainment, it also conveys moral lessons, historical themes, heroism, and comedy. All dialogue is sung in macapat, a traditional vocal style based on Javanese poetic meters. [Source: Bali Tourism Board, Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki]

Arja is classified into several types according to the number of performers and musical accompaniment: Arja Doyong, a solo performance without instruments; Arja Gaguntangan, staged by two to ten performers with gaguntangan instruments; and Arja Gede, involving large casts and full ensembles. In the early twentieth century a new form, Arja Muani, emerged, performed entirely by men—including female roles—and focusing mainly on comedy. This variant remains especially popular and is commonly presented at social events.

Arja performance in 2020

Comparable to opera, Arja has relied on sung dialogue since its beginnings. Although early performances centered on the Panji stories, modern productions also draw on Balinese legends and the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The genre is known for its lively interaction with audiences and its humorous, communicative style.

According to Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Arja originated around 1825, possibly at the funeral of a Balinese prince, and was initially performed by an all-male cast. Over time, women replaced male actors, leading to an emphasis on vocal virtuosity and the use of the Balinese language rather than classical Kawi. Arja thus developed into a widely popular folk opera that combines refined dance and music with earthy humor, often provided by clown and servant characters. Today it is performed both in villages and on television.

The evolution of Arja and related mask dance-dramas later gave rise to Prembon in 1942. Like Arja, Prembon draws on stories from the babad (chronicles), but it differs in its use of masks. While Arja performers appear unmasked, Prembon actors wear masks to clearly signal character types such as kings, priests, or commoners, yet still engage in spoken dialogue.

Sendratari, Balinese Pan-Indonesia “Ballet” Drama

Sendratari is a modern Balinese dance-drama that emerged around 1960. Like other Balinese theatrical forms, it integrates dance, music, and song, but it is strongly shaped by modern staging and dramaturgy. Each scene clearly defines major characters, including protagonists and antagonists. Created by the Balinese artist I Wayan Beratha, Sendratari is considered a large-scale drama, typically involving between 10 and 150 performers. While early productions drew on babad (historical chronicles), the repertoire soon expanded to include classical epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata. [Source: Bali Tourism Board, Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki]

According to Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Sendratari was developed in the 1960s after Javanese models and was first presented in 1961 at the Prambanan Festival in Central Java as a spectacular form of entertainment for both local and foreign audiences. Compared with older classical dance-dramas, Sendratari is more concise and action-oriented, omitting spoken dialogue and ritual elements. A narrator seated in front of the gamelan relates the story, while dancers and large choruses enact it on stage. The genre makes extensive use of Western stage techniques, including lighting effects, and its overall structure resembles Western narrative ballet.

The earliest Sendratari performances focused on the Ramayana. Soon afterward, artists from the Balinese College of Performing Arts (KOKAR) created Balinese versions, beginning with Jayaprana, a well-known local love story. In 1965, KOKAR introduced Sendratari Ramayana, which became especially popular and inspired many villages to form their own troupes. Over time, Sendratari developed into a hybrid form combining Balinese dance styles such as legong and kebyar with Javanese influences.

Today, Sendratari can be seen as a pan-Indonesian state art form, though in Bali it has acquired a distinct local character. Since the establishment of the Bali Arts Festival in 1979, large-scale Sendratari productions have often been featured as the festival’s main attraction, and the genre has significantly influenced the modernization of other Balinese performance traditions.

Wayang Wong

Wayang Wong is a form of Balinese dance theater. The word Wayang means puppet and Wong means human, so Wayang Wong means humans portraying as puppets. Wayang Wong looks like a Mask Dance. The performers use masks which reflect characters in the story and engage in dialogue. The difference between mask dance and Wayang Wong is about the story told. Unlike Mask Dance which mostly takes a story about history of a ceremony, Wayang Wong takes it story from the Babad just like Wayang Kulit. It also takes stories from the Ramayana and Mahabarata. Wayang Wong is rarely performed because it can only be performed by special performers that are chosen by local priests through a ritual. The villages which perform Wayang Wong regularly are Tejakula (district of Singaraja), Sukawati & Mas (district of Gianayar), Marga (district of Tabanan), and Bualu (Badung). [Source: Bali Tourism Board]

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “There are two classic forms of mask theatre in Bali: the wayang wong and the topeng. Both contain features derived from the old Hindu court culture, which was adopted from Java. They developed into their present forms under the patronage of the Balinese courts in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, especially in the central court, which was first located in Gelgel and after the beginning of the eighteenth century in Klungkung. Their creation is associated with certain artists and artist families. The oldest mask sets are revered because of their sanctity and like old theatrical costumes they are passed on as family heirlooms. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“Wayang wong dance-drama was created at the turn of the 19th century when the king of Klungkung wished to use his old, inherited masks in a new form of theatre based on the Ramayana. It was not, however, a completely new invention, being based on already existing forms of theatre such as the wayang kulit and the gambuh. Certain postures and gestures were adopted from shadow theatre, while gambuh provided the style of dance and even complete dance numbers. **

“Wayang wong is an impressive, large-scale form of dance theatre, in which decorative, slightly Chinese-influenced masks and large headdresses offer visual splendour. Actors sing their lines and dialogues in the Kawi language. As in other South-East Asian Ramayana-related drama forms, for example, khon of Thailand and wayang wong of Java, the noble heroes and heroines no longer wear masks. They are worn only by actors playing the demon and monkey characters. Monkeys have a central role in wayang wong. In Bali, monkeys have been revered as guardian spirits, and they have been the inspiration for many theatrical creatures, combining monkey features with elements of other animals, such as tigers or even birds. The monkeys’ pantomime-like gestures add a special flavour to the movements employed in wayang wong. **

“Along with the heroes, dancing in the pure classical style, the monkeys introduce positions and gestures based on animal movements adapted from earlier traditions. Despite their apparently relaxed nature, their execution is based on fixed choreographies. The cast of a wayang wong performance includes several dozen dancer-actors. Experienced professionals play roles such as the heroes and the demon-king Ravana, usually employing classical dance techniques, while the minor monster and the monkey characters are often played by amateurs. **

“A performance usually elaborates only a single episode of the Ramayana. The dialogue and the Kawi language have been adopted from shadow theatre, though in a simplified form. Wayang wong performances still have a ritual significance. Many of the masks, which in wayang wong also include headdresses ear ornaments and sometimes even wigs, are regarded as highly sacred objects.” **

Tari Topeng (Balinese Mask Dance-Drama)

Tari Topeng is a traditional Balinese masked dance-drama that originated as a sacred ritual performance and later developed secular forms for entertainment. In its ritual context, topeng is usually performed by a solo dancer or a small group of male dancers during major ceremonies. These sacred performances recount historical events connected to the ceremony or convey Hindu teachings through simple dialogue, and they are believed to protect rituals from harmful spiritual influences. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki; Bali Tourism Board]

Forms such as Topeng Pajegan and Topeng Panca have been performed since at least the seventeenth century and remain integral to temple festivals and family rites. Although the characters, their order of appearance, and basic movement styles are fixed, there is no written script or predetermined musical structure. This allows dancers and gamelan musicians to improvise together, often over performances lasting several hours. While early references to masked dances in Bali date back to A.D. 896, many sacred topeng dramas are still performed only within authentic ritual settings, where dance retains its spiritual function rather than serving as mere entertainment.

The most important sacred form is Topeng Pajegan, which is traditionally performed before major ceremonies. It is based on the legend of Sidhakarya, a holy priest from Java and brother of the king of the Gelgel kingdom. After being unjustly expelled by the king, Sidhakarya cursed the court so that its rituals failed. When the king realized his error, a masked drama honoring the priest was instituted to neutralize the curse. For this reason, Topeng Pajegan is believed to ensure the success of ceremonies.

Topeng Pajegan is performed exclusively by male dancers using several masks, the most important being the Sidhakarya mask, which is believed to represent the priest himself and is also thought to possess healing powers.

Topeng belongs to a broader tradition of Balinese mask and dance-drama, alongside wayang wong, both of which derive from Hindu court culture introduced from Java. These genres developed under royal patronage in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly in the courts of Gelgel and later Klungkung. The oldest mask sets are regarded as sacred heirlooms, rarely used, sometimes forbidden to photograph, and believed to possess magical power, underscoring the enduring sanctity of topeng in Balinese culture.

Topeng Stories and Masks

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “Topeng can be described as a Balinese chronicle play with plots relating to the island’s history, ancient kings, ministers, and court intrigues. There are two types of topeng. Topeng paiegan (paiegan: offering), also known as topeng wali, is performed by a single actor as a kind of monodrama, which is still regarded as having a profound magical-religious meaning. The performer is at the same time a priest and an actor. In the latter capacity he displays considerable virtuosity, changing his character and movements according to the masks used in the play. The one-man topeng is still performed in various rituals, such as the filing of teeth, weddings, and funerals. In the historically younger topeng panca five actors appear. In both types, the action consists of a series of stock scenes presented in predictable order. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“For dramatic action, the main mask types are the refined (alus), white-faced king (dalem), his white-faced consort, the strong large-eyed antagonist king, and a number of strong minister characters with face colour ranging from cream to grey and red. A comic touch is added by several grotesque clown masks, often portrayed as suffering from physical defects. The masks of the clowns leave the mouth visible and cover only the upper part of the face, permitting the actors to present their lines. The task of the clowns is to describe the plot to the audience in the vernacular, as several languages are spoken in topeng, for example, classical Sanskrit and Kawi. **

The masks of topeng include those for special characters such as jauk who are not directly related to the dramatic action of a performance. Some of the characters are presented in their own, separate introductory dances. One such character is the white-haired Tua, wearing a light-coloured old man’s mask. In the one-man topeng the final mask is usually the smilingly grotesque Sidha Karya (the one who fulfils the task). It is a good example of the typically Balinese way of combining the grotesquely comic with the sacred. The mask of Sidha Karya, with its white face, buckteeth and almost mad smile, is actually the most sacred of all topeng masks. It is only when he wears this mask that the actor may recite the Sanskrit prayers. On the other hand, Sldha Kariya may behave in a very unruly manner, and small children in the audience are prepared for his well-meant teasing. **

The acting technique concentrates on virtuoso characterisation. The language of gesture is mainly based on classic Balinese dance derived from gambuh, although it varies greatly according to character. The noble king is always alert, the old man shakes and shudders absent-mindedly, and the red-faced minister with his broad movements represents the universal mood of wonder. In the one-man topeng paiegan the dancer sets his mask basket in front of the gamelan, from where he chooses and dons the appropriate masks. The presentation of the stock characters thus provides the essence of the actual scenes. With its five actors, topeng panca, developed from the one-man topeng in the late nineteenth century, has smoothly flowing dramatic action without interruptions. Unlike the sacred topeng paiegan, the group topeng is a theatrical performance without deeper ritual significance. **

Balinese Wayang Kulit Shadow Puppet Theater

Balinese audiences have long loved shadow puppet theatre, accompanied by gamelan, much like in Java. Wayang kulit dramas feature gods and heroes and often symbolize the struggle between order and chaos. The tradition is closely related to Javanese shadow theatre, sharing the name wayang kulit (wayang: shadow or puppet; kulit: leather). Shadow theatre is believed to have reached Bali from Java before the 11th century, together with Indian-influenced court culture. At that time, the Balinese adopted the Ramayana and Mahabharata, which remain core sources for wayang stories in both islands. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

There are two main forms of Balinese wayang kulit. Wayang Peteng is performed at night as entertainment and uses a white cloth screen lit by an oil lamp, so audiences see only the shadows of the puppets. Despite this, it remains highly engaging and often draws on local tales, comedy, and even social or political themes, making it an important traditional medium for moral education.

Wayang Lemah, by contrast, is performed during the day and is considered sacred. It takes place during major ceremonies and recounts stories of gods or ritual histories. Performed without a screen, it allows the audience to see both the puppets and the dalang clearly. Wayang Lemah is believed to protect ceremonies from negative forces, while still relying on the same essential elements as Wayang Peteng: a single dalang handling all movements and voices, accompanied by a small gender wayang ensemble.

Balinese wayang kulit has retained a strong ritual role and functions as a mediator of moral values, though it has not shaped other theatrical forms as extensively as in Java. Its visual influence is instead seen in traditional Balinese painting, known as the wayang style. Performances may be staged by day or night and usually involve a modest troupe consisting of the dalang, assistants, and a small gamelan. Stories are drawn not only from Indian epics but also from East Javanese cycles such as the Panji tales and later works like Calonarang. Most characters speak Kawi, while clown servants use colloquial Balinese to translate and entertain. Combining moral instruction, adventure, and earthy humor, wayang kulit remains highly popular, with hundreds of active dalang across Bali.

Balinese Wayang Kulit Puppets and Puppeteers

Wayang Kulit puppets are made from stiffly tanned leather mounted on handles of horn or bone. Each puppet is cut into a distinctive silhouette and delicately pierced with lace-like patterns, allowing lamplight to illuminate details of the face, costume, and ornamentation. The arms, joined at the shoulders and controlled with rods, are manipulated with great expressiveness. All movement and dialogue are controlled by a single puppeteer, the dalang, who performs behind the screen and is accompanied by the traditional gender wayang ensemble. The dalang must skillfully alter his voice for different characters so that their conversations appear lifelike. [Source: Bali Tourism Board]

Balinese and Javanese leather puppets share core aesthetic principles: faces and feet are shown in profile, while the torso is presented frontally, and only the arms are jointed at the shoulder and elbow. Despite these similarities, the two traditions differ in style. Javanese puppets are highly stylized and symbolic, a form believed to have developed under Islamic court influence after the fall of the Majapahit Empire. Balinese puppets, by contrast, retain older forms and appear more naturalistic. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

This archaic quality is evident in Balinese puppets’ headdresses, hairstyles, costumes, and facial features, which closely resemble the low-relief carvings of Majapahit temples in East Java. When cultural ties with Islamic Java diminished after the 16th century, Bali preserved these earlier aesthetic traditions.

At the heart of Wayang Kulit is the dalang, who serves as puppeteer, narrator, and ritual specialist. Beyond mastering complex vocal techniques and movement patterns, he is also responsible for the sacrifices and ceremonial observances associated with the performance. The principles of this demanding art are codified in an ancient manual known as the Dharma Pewayangan, or the Laws of Puppetry.

Gambuh

Gambuh (from gam, “way of life,” and buh, “king”) is one of Bali’s oldest court dance-dramas, believed to have originated in the royal courts of East Java. Although its precise roots are unclear, the tradition is at least four centuries old and has strongly influenced later Balinese theatre and dance. Performed during the daytime, gambuh belongs to the semi-sacred bebali category. Once confined to court ceremonies, it is now seen mainly in temples and only rarely in commercial settings. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

The gambuh repertoire is drawn from classical East Javanese epics, especially stories of Prince Panji. Several languages are used: noble characters speak Kawi, the old court language, while comic servants use colloquial Balinese. The musical accompaniment is among the most complex in Bali, featuring a small orchestra dominated by long, plaintive flutes. Although gambuh was originally performed by an all-male cast, women now commonly play female roles and even heroic characters, and the all-male tradition has also been successfully revived in recent decades. Experiments with Western material have occurred as well.

Like many Southeast Asian theatre forms, gambuh relies on fixed character types, each with prescribed dance styles, makeup, and costumes. Heroes appear in refined (alus) or sweet (manis) styles, while ministers, attendants, and villains are portrayed in stronger (keras) or coarser (kasar) modes. Only a small portion of the original repertoire survives today. After the Dutch conquest of the Balinese courts in the early 20th century, gambuh lost royal patronage; performances were shortened and simplified, yet the tradition endured.

Gambuh’s dance technique is marked by stiff shoulders, controlled arm movements, expressive fingers, and a lowered center of gravity, with gestures influenced by Indian mudra. Facial expressions follow strict conventions, though eye movements are especially emphasized. This classical style became the foundation for other major genres such as legong, topeng, and arja. Modern performances last only a few hours and consist of stock scenes without sets or props, typically staged in temple courtyards decorated with parasols and bamboo. Costumes—white undergarments, gold-embroidered collars, hanging fabric strips, and ornate headdresses—add visual splendor and have likewise influenced other Balinese theatrical forms.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, Indonesia Tourism website

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; Wikipedia; National Geographic, Live Science, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Natural History magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated January 2026