FOLK RELIGIONS IN INDONESIA | Facts and Details

TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS IN INDONESIAN

Nyai Roro Kidul, the goddess of the Southern Sea according to Javanese Kejawen, Sunda Wiwitan and Balinese Hinduism religion

An estimated 20 million people, primarily in Java, Kalimantan, and Papua, practice various traditional belief systems, often referred to collectively as “Aliran Kepercayaan.” There are approximately 400 different Aliran Kepercayaan communities throughout the archipelago. Many combine their beliefs with one of the government-recognized religions and register under that recognized religion. The government permits the practice of traditional belief systems, or Aliran Kepercayaan, as cultural manifestations rather than as religions. Aliran Kepercayaan groups must register with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism at the district or provincial level, and local authorities generally respect their right to practice their beliefs. [Source: International Religious Freedom Report for 2012, Indonesia, U.S. Department of State ]

Rituals in traditional belief systems mark life-cycle events or involve propitiation for specific occasions, and are led by shamans, spirit mediums or prayer masters (who may be either male or female). Even in Muslim and Christian areas, some people may perform traditional rituals at birth or death, honour and feed the spirits of places or the graves of ancestors, or consult practitioners of sorcery or countermagic. Debate over what constitutes allowable custom among religious followers is frequent in Indonesia. [Source: Clark E. Cunningham, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001]

One traveler posted on Travellersjourney.com: “ Pilgrimages to the graves of local religious leaders and natural landmarks – such as mountains – across Indonesia are another set of beliefs that go back to a pre-Islamic age. These pilgrimages can mix a modern belief in Islam and a reverance for religious figures with animalistic and pagan beliefs.An interesting example is the pilgrimage to Genung Kemukus, a local religious site in Java, which, it is estimated, was visited by 3.5 million people in 2005. Genung Kemukus is a fascinating place, because alongside prayer, pilgrims also come together to have sex with each other, which is supposed to bring luck as well as wealth. [Source:ravellersjourney.com]

Adherents of traditional religions have often been viewed by urban Muslim and Christian elites as backward or primitive. In response, these groups organized themselves along more modern, institutional lines to gain legitimacy and support. Such efforts represented both religious and ethnic resistance—to pressures from neighboring Muslim and Christian populations, as well as to exploitation by government authorities, military officials, and outside developers involved in logging and mining. On Java, mystical movements like Subud also campaigned for official recognition and legal protection. Unlike more remote groups, they were able to draw support from influential figures, including individuals within the highest levels of government. [Source: Clark E. Cunningham, Countries and Their Cultures, Gale Group Inc., 2001]

Animism in Indonesia

Dewi Sri, Goddess of Rice, made from rice plant in a paddy field in Gunung Kawi; Offerings have also been placed near the goddess

Animism is a belief system that sees all elements of nature as imbued with spiritual power. In Indonesia, faith in spirits of the earth, air, and water blends with a continuing reverence for ancestral forces; both visible and invisible realms influence daily life. These spirits may be protective or malevolent, inhabiting houses, trees, rocks, mountaintops, and countless other places. To maintain harmony with them, people offer gifts or show respect through ceremonies, chants, songs, or simple words of acknowledgment.The spirits of deceased relatives become ancestors who require prayers and offerings. Neglecting them risks provoking their anger and bringing misfortune to the living. Many people attribute both hardship and success to the actions of natural and supernatural beings. [Source: Jill Forshee, “Culture and Customs of Indonesia”, Greenwood Press, 2006]

Because Indonesia is culturally and geographically diverse, beliefs about spirits vary widely from region to region. In places such as Bali and Java, long-established religions like Hinduism and Islam have merged with older traditions, producing blended systems of belief. Similar patterns can be found among many Indonesian Christians, who incorporate earlier spiritual practices into their faith.

At the same time, fully animist societies continue to exist, particularly in the eastern islands. Many adherents feel no need to adopt other religions, believing their traditions already serve them well. Their convictions are often reinforced by experience—for instance, rituals performed after prolonged droughts in places like Sumba or Timor are believed to bring rain. Likewise, locations associated with repeated accidents or deaths are often regarded as inhabited by dangerous spirits.

Negative emotions such as jealousy or hatred are thought to give rise to curses that can cause illness or death. While such ideas may appear superstitious to outsiders, animists understand them as logical explanations of cause and effect within their worldview. Elements of animism can also be found in many major religions, reflecting older belief systems that predate them—such as faith in miracles, unseen realms, sacred taboos, and the practice of prayer and offerings.

In fact, many world religions retain traces of earlier animist or pagan traditions in their rituals and symbols. Animism differs, however, in its strong connection to local spirits, places, and ancestors. Its moral framework is often rooted in specific communities rather than universal codes. As one person from Sumba explained, “Following custom, outside of the clan home and village there is no right and wrong.” This highlights the central role of kinship, locality, and tradition in shaping animist belief and behavior.

Dayak dukun (shaman)

Javanese animists try and maintain a balance between the Merapu gods of the sky above, and Nyale, the Sea Goddess of the world below. The sea goddess of Njai Loro Kidul is so revered that one of Java's best hotels always has a room with a bath reserved for her. During ceremonies where people make offerings to her, most people in Java are so poor all they can only afford a coconut. Among the Sa'dan Toraja of Sulawesi, for example, the elaborate sacrifice of buffalo at funerals has become part of the international tourist circuit. The conversion of local customs into tourist attractions can also be seen in other parts of Indonesia, such as Bali and Samosir Island in North Sumatra.

Living with Spirits in Indonesia

Many Indonesians hold a deep-seated belief that dangers exist not only in the visible world but also in unseen realms. In Bali, for example, some people eat quickly and quietly, wary that leaving the mouth open for too long might invite harmful spiritual forces to enter. Such everyday habits reflect a broader sensitivity to invisible threats that may lurk in ordinary activities. [Source: Jill Forshee, “Culture and Customs of Indonesia”, Greenwood Press, 2006]

In Sumba and other regions, fear centers on nocturnal spirits known as suangi. These beings are believed to roam at night, preying on the vulnerable. Villagers often keep lamps burning through the night to ward them off, as darkness is thought to give these spirits power. According to local belief, suangi may consume human organs or drain blood from sleeping victims, much like vampires, thereby increasing their own strength.

When someone falls ill or becomes mysteriously weak over time, it is sometimes attributed to an attack by such spirits during sleep. In some cases, suspicion even extends to living individuals who are believed to harbor or embody suangi, leading others to avoid them. These fears shape patterns of behavior, including warnings against going out at night and the importance of maintaining light and vigilance.

Being alone is also considered dangerous, as solitude is thought to attract malevolent forces. For this reason, people often prefer to live in shared households, where the presence of others provides protection. Empty houses, by contrast, are widely feared and often regarded as haunted. In this worldview, safety comes not only from physical shelter but from human presence and the maintenance of social order, which together help keep unseen dangers at bay.

Ancestor Worship in Indonesia

Scholars have observed that many Indonesians show a deep reverence for deceased ancestors and revered figures, a respect that can appear almost supernatural to outsiders. Misfortune is often understood not as random, but as the result of spiritual causes—arising from human wrongdoing, broken social obligations, or failures to perform proper rituals. Such explanations are especially common in cases of illness or the death of children, who are believed to be particularly influenced by ancestral spirits. [Source: Jill Forshee, “Culture and Customs of Indonesia”, Greenwood Press, 2006]

On the island of Sumba, for example, villagers in 2000 interpreted the sudden death of a healthy ten-year-old boy in his sleep as supernatural punishment. They believed it was linked to an improperly conducted funeral for his grandmother weeks earlier. According to local views, the textiles used to wrap the body were insufficient in both quality and number, and this perceived disrespect angered her spirit. In such cases, offended ancestors are thought capable of taking the life of a descendant as retribution.

A similar emphasis on proper ritual can be seen in Bali, where death ceremonies are of immense importance. It is widely believed that no expense should be spared in honoring the dead, as anything less would be seen as disrespectful. Since the soul is expected to transition into a powerful ancestral presence capable of influencing the living, a poorly conducted funeral is considered a dangerous beginning to that relationship.

Rice Goddess Dewi Sri

Across rice-growing regions, it is widely believed that spirits inhabit plants and landscapes, providing fertility, protection, and guidance in times of need. At the center of these beliefs in Bali and Java and other places in Indonesia is Dewi Sri, the revered goddess of rice, fertility, and sustenance. She is not merely symbolic but is treated as a living presence whose favor ensures good harvests and community well-being. [Source: Jill Forshee, “Culture and Customs of Indonesia”, Greenwood Press, 2006]

Traditional farming practices reflect deep respect for Dewi Sri. During harvest, women often use small, crescent-shaped blades hidden in their palms so as not to “frighten” the rice sheaves—an act rooted in the belief that the rice itself possesses a spirit linked to the goddess. Similar careful harvesting methods can be found throughout Indonesia, underscoring a shared cultural sensitivity to the spiritual life of crops.

The introduction of modern agricultural techniques during the Green Revolution disrupted this balance. In parts of Indonesia, including Bali and Java, high-yield rice varieties, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides increased production but also caused ecological damage. Fish, shrimp, and frogs in the paddies died off, and ducks—once essential for natural fertilization and pest control—became less useful or fell ill. Many farmers also complained that the taste and quality of the rice declined, while new crop diseases emerged.

For some Indonesians, these problems were not only environmental but spiritual. They believed that Dewi Sri and other spirits had been offended by the disruption of traditional practices and the introduction of harmful chemicals. Reflecting this concern, Suharto at one point banned certain toxic pesticides. Although a Muslim, he was also deeply influenced by Javanese mystical traditions, illustrating how belief in spiritual forces continues to coexist with formal religion—even among political leaders.

Shamanism in Indonesia

Shamanism in Indonesia, often rooted in older indigenous belief systems, continues to be practiced in many parts of the archipelago. At its core is the idea that a shaman—commonly known as a healer or spiritual intermediary—derives power through a connection to ancestral spirits. This connection grants access to supernatural forces that are believed to influence everyday life, from health and illness to fortune and misfortune. [Source: Budi Susanto, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]

Central to these practices is the belief that a spirit enters or possesses the shaman, guiding their actions and enabling them to perform rituals, healing, and communication with the unseen world. In this state, the shaman acts not independently but as a vessel through which spiritual forces operate.

Even within Indonesia’s major religions—such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam—elements of this shamanistic tradition persist. Religious leaders are often regarded not only as teachers or clerics but also as individuals with special spiritual insight or power, reflecting a continuing cultural appreciation for shaman-like roles in guiding and protecting communities.

House Societies, Headhunting and Clan Warfare in Indonesia

In much of eastern Indonesia, communities are organized as what anthropologists call “house societies,” in which clan houses and their ancestral spirits serve as central forces shaping people’s understanding of the universe. These structures define not only a sense of place but also a shared moral order. In its most extreme form, this localized worldview appeared in headhunting societies, where members of one’s own region were considered fully human, while outsiders were not. In this respect, such attitudes are not entirely different from those seen in modern conflicts, where opposing groups may similarly dehumanize one another. [Source: Jill Forshee, “Culture and Customs of Indonesia”, Greenwood Press, 2006]

Throughout history, people across the world have justified violence by denying the humanity of others. In parts of Southeast Asia, headhunting was tied to ideas of masculinity and power. It served as a test of a young man’s courage, strength, and loyalty to his village or clan. It also functioned as a display of masculinity, sometimes encouraged by women who celebrated warriors returning with the heads of their enemies. These acts symbolized victory and were believed to reinforce fertility and spiritual potency within the community.

Beyond its symbolic value, headhunting represented the ultimate destruction of an enemy’s identity. By removing the head, people believed they could prevent the deceased from entering the ancestral realm, since recognition depended on the face. This was considered one of the most severe fates imaginable. Although the practice has long been outlawed and today survives mainly in symbolic forms—such as the use of coconuts in ritual—its legacy persists. In some cases, communities have taken justice into their own hands, killing and beheading those accused of serious crimes in accordance with traditional law, or adat.

Instances of such violence have occurred in more recent history. In 1998, during a period of instability following the resignation of Suharto, large-scale conflict broke out between clans in West Sumba, resulting in numerous beheadings. Around the same time, in East Timor, Indonesian soldiers and allied fighters displayed the severed heads of independence rebels as a form of intimidation. These events show that the symbolic and psychological power of such practices has not entirely disappeared.

It is important to note that not all animist societies engaged in headhunting, and acts of decapitation have also occurred among groups that follow major world religions. Indonesians are no more inherently prone to violence than people elsewhere. In everyday life, social values often emphasize restraint, harmony, and balance. However, as with many longstanding traditions, elements of older practices can resurface during periods of conflict, demonstrating how deeply embedded cultural patterns may endure over time.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006; National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, Indonesia Tourism website (indonesia.travel), Indonesia government websites, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated April 2026