WAYANG KULIT: HISTORY, STAGING, PUPPET MAKING

WAYANG KULIT

Wayang kulit character and puppet Kendran

“Wayang kulit”, narrated shadow puppet shows performed to gamelan music, is perhaps the most unique cultural tradition associated with Java. The puppets are flat and shadows from the puppets are cast on an illuminated white cotton cloth hanging between the puppeteer and the audience. The puppets are made out of buffalo leather and painted gold, red, blue and green even though nobody sees them.

Wayang is performed in open-air theaters and broadcast on radio and television. Live performances often go on all night and the ending always leads up to another episode sort of like a soap opera. Once there was an announcement that a final episode was going to be held, and people in Java were genuinely worried that the drama might cause the end of world.

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “Wayang kulit (wayang: literally shadow, sometimes puppet; kulit: leather or skin) is still the most popular form of shadow theatre in all Asia. It has been extremely important in the development of Javanese theatre, as most of the other forms of classical theatre have derived their story material, stylisation, and many performing techniques directly from it. Wayang kulit set the aesthetic standard of Javanese theatre, and partly Balinese theatre as well. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“The stagecraft and equipment are relatively simple, the primus motor being a single narrator-puppeteer, dalang, manipulating the leather puppets on a simple white screen and acting as a narrator to the accompaniment of a gamelan orchestra. It is, however, an art form of immensely rich and intricate symbolism and philosophical content. Shadow drama gave rise to other forms of puppet theatre, for example, wayang klitik with flat wooden puppets and wayang golek with three-dimensional rod puppets. Although these forms of theatre are highly developed, and wayang golek still thrives, they are clearly surpassed by wayang kulit in popularity and complexity.

Other forms of wayang complement wayang kulit. In eastern Java, wayang klitik consists of flat wooden puppets, while in western Java, wayang golek features three-dimensional, doll-like figures. Unlike shadow puppets, wayang golek is performed in full view, with brightly painted faces and carefully tailored costumes made from various fabrics. These forms present similar narrative traditions, often adapted with regional variations and contemporary elements. [Source: “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006]

Book: “Javanese Shadow Puppets” by Ward Keeler.

History of Wayang Kulit

Wayang kulit performance with gamelan accompaniment held at the 15th anniversary of for Hamengkubuwono VIII's on the the threone in Yogyakarta, between 1900 and 1940

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “There are two theories concerning the roots of Javanese shadow theatre. According to one theory, it came from India together with the Ramayana and Mababbarata epics during the long process of Java’s Indianisation. The other view maintains that Javanese shadow theatre has ancient indigenous roots. This is often supported by the fact that part of the shadow-theatre repertoire is based on pre-Hindu story cycles, and that all the technical terms of the genre are Javanese and not derived from Sanskrit or other Indian languages. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“The earliest record confirming the existence of shadow theatre in Central Java dates from AD 907. In the East Javanese period, shadow theatre is believed to have been adopted by the Hindu courts of Bali during the long process of its Indianisation. The Balinese puppets still bear strong resemblances to the so-called wayang-style reliefs in East Javanese temples, discussed above, which are believed to have shared a common style with the contemporary East Javanese shadow puppets. Present-day Javanese shadow puppets are, in turn, believed to have evolved into their extremely elongated and almost non-figurative style during the period of Muslim rule, thus reflecting Islam’s ban on making a human image. **

Wayang stories borrow characters from indigenous myths, Indian epics and heroes from Persian tales. The repertory and performance techniques were transmitted orally within the families of puppeteers, musicians and puppet-makers. Master puppeteers are expected to memorize a vast repertory of stories and to recite ancient narrative passages and poetic songs in a witty and creative manner. The Wayang Puppet Theatre still enjoys great popularity. However, to compete successfully with modern forms of pastimes such as video, television or karaoke, performers tend to accentuate comic scenes at the expense of the story line and to replace musical accompaniment with pop tunes, leading to the loss of some characteristic features. [Source: UNESCO]

Wayang Kulit Puppets

The leather and wood puppets used in wayang kulit have a light shining behind them and placed behind a screen so all you see are their shadows. You can also the little sticks that move the arms and hands of the puppets. Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “The different characters, as well as their social status and psychological qualities, are marked by the size, colour, and other details of the puppet. There are, for example, fifteen eye shapes, thirteen nose shapes, and eleven mouth shapes, which together with specific costumes, headdresses, crowns, and jewelry typify the characters. The noble, so-called alus, characters are usually small, the strong gagah characters are larger, and the demons full of aggressive power are the largest. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“Like the genre as a whole, the puppets of wayang kulit form an endlessly rich world of their own, a kind of science, which to an ever-increasing degree leads the initiated viewer into the secrets of the “wayang world”. The noble hero puppet, for example, follows the Javanese hero ideal of utmost beauty. His body must be slender and well proportioned his nose long and pointed, and his eyes must be shaped like soya beans. He must also look downwards, a reference to self-control and humility, the greatest virtues of Southeast Asian heroes. **

“The stronger characters may look straight ahead, and the more arrogant ones may even look upwards. The noses of the strong characters point upwards, and they have round, bulging eyes. The requirements of the male hero also apply to the royal princesses, whose refinement is taken to the extreme. Colour symbolism gives added detail to the characterisation of the puppets, specifying their mood or temporary emotional state. Gold, the dominating colour, indicates dignity and serenity; black is a sign of anger or maturity; red is for tempestuousness; and white is the colour of youth. To make matters more complicated, the principal characters can be represented by several puppets during a single performance, according to the situation, mood, or age. For example, Arjuna of the Mababbarata, the Javanese hero par excellence, has thirteen different puppet shapes.” **

Making Wayang Kulit Puppets

Wayang puppets are cut from dried buffalo skin with a knife. Details are added with a hammer and chisel-like stylus, moveable arms are attached, and then the puppets are painted with bright colors. The puppets are painted because sometimes they are used in front of the screen as well as behind it. The sticks used to hold the puppets and their limbs upright are made of horn. The main prop is the “kayon”, or the “tree” and “mountain of life.” It is also cut from leather and is used to end pieces and symbolize obstacles, clouds, mountains or the sea.

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “The wayang kulit puppets, skilfully cut and chased in leather, are in themselves works of art following strict iconographic rules. A single performance may require the use of 100–500 puppets, varying from some 20 to 100 centimetres in height. The body of the puppet is usually depicted frontally, but the face and feet and the extremely long movable arms and hands are in profile. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

Although audiences perceive the puppets as silhouettes, each figure is carefully painted in vivid colors and often accented with gold. These details, while not fully visible during performance, contribute to the puppets’ aesthetic value when viewed directly. Craftsmen carve the figures from leather using specialized knives, chisels, and master templates. The designs feature delicate openwork, including intricate patterns of curves, lines, and small perforations that define facial features, clothing, and decorative motifs. This lace-like carving requires exceptional precision, as each puppet must remain clearly legible in shadow form. As a result, the artistry of carving—more than painting—determines the puppet’s effectiveness on stage. [Source: “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006]

Once completed, the puppets are mounted on central rods made of bamboo or bone, which function both as structural supports and as handles for the puppeteer, or dalang. Additional rods are attached to movable parts such as arms, legs, or jaws, allowing for expressive gestures during performance. The manipulation of these elements, combined with the dalang’s narration and vocal range, brings the figures to life. The craftsmanship and performance are thus inseparable, each depending on the other to achieve the full dramatic effect.

The skills involved in puppet-making are often transmitted within families, reflecting broader patterns in Indonesian artistic traditions. Master artisans typically handle the most complex aspects of carving, while younger members learn gradually by working on simpler components. The visual characteristics of puppets also convey social and moral qualities. Refined characters are usually depicted with black, white, or yellow faces, while coarser figures may appear in shades of red or pink. Body proportions further reinforce these distinctions: large, imposing figures suggest strength and uncontrolled aggression, medium-sized figures indicate balance and self-control, and smaller, slender forms signify refinement.

Wayang Kulit Stories

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “The story or plot of wayang kulit as well as other Javanese drama performances is called lakon, roughly meaning the course of events or action. The plots are derived from various sources, for example, the Indian Mababbarata and the Ramayana, the East Javanese Prince Panji cycle, and later Muslim stories. The four oldest cycles, dealing with the ancient history of Java, are collectively named wayang purwa (purwa: primeval, original, ancient). This includes both pre-Hindu material and lakon based directly on the Mababbarata and the Ramayana epics, whose heroes are regarded as the mythical ancestors of the Javanese. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“There are several hundred lakon. They serve merely as guides to the performances, including lists of scenes and personages, and descriptions of the action in the actual play, which in practice includes a great deal of improvisation not written in the lakon. However, a lakon follows a more or less standard structure. Sometimes the lakon are faithful to the original texts, but in many cases the epic heroes have been removed from their authentic contexts and have been written into new, purely Javanese, fantasies. **

“The play begins with audience scenes in the palaces of opposing monarchs, where the main conflict is presented. In the ensuing sections, the opponents send messengers to each other until they finally meet in person. Whilst preparing for battle, the hero will experience many doubts and inner conflicts. The climax is a great battle, which is also a drastic turning point in the action. Finally, the victorious noble hero presents himself in his full glory at the home palace, and the plays usually have happy endings, the obligatory victory of the right. The themes are highly ethical, and the mood is generally serious, although the whole includes comic scenes with stock clown characters, slapstick, and even topical satire. Javanese theatre thus combines highly noble qualities with earthy comedy and even obscene grotesqueness. **

“On a philosophical, one could almost say an esoteric, level, the play, as a whole, symbolises the human life cycle. The first part symbolises youth, the middle part adulthood, and the final part old age. The steps from one period to the next are emphasised by the change of the mode in the accompanying gamelan music. On the deepest philosophical level wayang kulit as a whole, including the screen, puppets, dalang etc., represents the cosmic human body, a conception derived through Hindu-Buddhism and Tantrism from the Indian concept of purusha, the primeval cosmic man. **

Wayang Kulit Stage and Gamelan Music

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “The wayang kulit puppets are opaque, and on the screen they are seen as dark shadows articulated by precise lace-like perforations. The screen is divided into two, the right-hand side being reserved for the good characters, and the left for the evil party. This polarity, however, is not rigid, since both parties include characters with qualities that could belong to the opposing one. At the sides of the 4-metre-long screen the puppets stand in rows with their rods stuck into the soft trunk of a banana tree placed below the screen. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“When the play begins, the gunungan, a tapering structure resembling a temple spire or a tree, is removed from in front of the screen. The gunungan is the symbol of the “wayang world” and is a kind of “curtain” marking the beginning of the play, changes of scene, and the end. It is also used for special effects such as storms, or even the disruption of the cosmic order. Like all other features of wayang kulit, the gunungan has many symbolic meanings; it is said to symbolise, for example, the World Mountain, the tree of life, and the cosmic order. **

“The dalang displays expert knowledge of the music so essential to the performance. He leads the gamelan, an ensemble of up to thirty musical instruments: gongs, metallophones, xylophones, drums, flutes, zithers, and stringed instruments along with a chorus of female singers. One set of metallophones carries the recurrent melody, which is elaborated by other metallophones, xylophones, and gong sets, with the drums leading the rhythm, while another set of metallophones gives the dalang his pitch. **

“The gamelan accompaniment is indeed an integral part of the performance. Each principal character has his or her own musical theme or Leitmotif, and the gamelan drastically accentuates the three decisive turning-points of the performance, changing from the rather low-keyed accompaniment of the beginning to an ever higher pitch and faster tempo towards the end. **

“In earlier times it was customary for men to watch the play from in front of the screen, while women sat behind it, thus being able to see the orchestra, the dalang, and the brightly coloured puppets. This custom is no longer maintained, at least in large-scale public performances, and today the performance can be freely viewed from both sides of the screen.” **

Derivations of Wayang Kulit

Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy Helsinki wrote: “The steady popularity of wayang kulit has also made it a platform of various later ideologies. It was used to propagate the Islamic faith, and Western missionaries have also spread the message of Christianity with their Western-influenced puppets. In the mid-1950s the naturalistic puppets of wayang pancasila (Pancasila: the doctrine of the spiritual foundations of the Indonesian Republic) presented the history of Indonesian independence to the people. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen, Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki **]

“The Chinese minority of Java has also developed its own shadow puppets, combining Javanese and Chinese features. There are also many wayang kulit-related drama forms, of which the most archaic is wayang beber, now practically extinct. In wayang beber the dalang illustrated the story by opening a painted scroll supported by two poles. Another now rare form is wayang klitik, based on the Islamic Damar Wulan story cycle. It was performed without a screen with flat, wooden puppets carved in relief. **

Although wayang golek [see other article] is performed in many places, wayang kulit is still the most popular form of Javanese puppet theatre. It is the origin of the whole “wayang family”, and has provided the general aesthetics, characterisation, and repertoire of Javanese classical theatre as a whole. In its many variants, wayang kulit is performed throughout Java on feast days. Performances are regularly staged by the kraton, and they are also broadcast fr equently. Shadow theatre still partly has its traditional, deep, and even sacral meaning, and performing and viewing the play can be experienced as a kind of spiritual exercise. However, many also claim that it has recently been too heavily popularised and is thus becoming only a form of entertainment. **

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 5: East/Southeast Asia:” edited by Paul Hockings, 1993; “Culture and Customs of Indonesia” by Jill Forshee, Greenwood Press, 2006; National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Library of Congress, Indonesia Tourism website (indonesia.travel), Indonesia government websites, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated April 2026