WATER POLLUTION IN INDIA: SEWAGE, CHEMICALS. RIVERS, LAKES

WATER POLLUTION IN INDIA

20120512-Oshiwara_river pollution India.JPG
River pollution in India India suffers from water pollution mainly from raw sewage, industrial waster and runoff of agricultural pesticides;. Tap water is not potable in many parts of the country. Water is often very dirty and can make people sick. The Yamana River, a source of drinking water for Delhi, is an open sewar for people without toilets.

Causes of water pollution in India include untreated domestic sewage, industrial effluent discharge, and agricultural runoff containing fertilizers and pesticides. According to some estimates 70 percent of India's surface water is polluted due to the uncontrolled dumping of chemical and industrial waste, fertilizers, and pesticides. Millions of citizens lack safe drinking water, leading to high rates of waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. A large majority of surface water sources, including major river systems, are heavily contaminated and unsafe for direct consumption. [Source: Wikipedia, Encyclopedia Britannica]

Total renewable water resources: 1.911 trillion cubic meters (2022 estimate). Total water withdrawal: municipal: 56 billion cubic meters (2022 estimate); industrial: 17 billion cubic meters (2022 estimate); agricultural: 688 billion cubic meters (2022). Drinking water source: urban: 95.8 percent of population (2022 estimate); rural: 91.9 percent of population (2022 estimate); total: 93.3 percent of population (2022 estimate); urban: 4.2 percent of population (2022 estimate); rural: 8.1 percent of population (2022 estimate); total: 6.7 percent of population (2022 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]

In the 2000s, India had 1,261 cubic kilometers of renewable water resources, 92 percent of which was used for farming. Safe drinking water was available to 96 percent of urban dwellers and 82 percent of rural dwellers. From 1947 to 2002, average annual per capita water availability declined by almost 70 percent to 1,822 cubic meters, and overexploitation of groundwater is problematic in the states of Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. [Source: Library of Congress, 2004; Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007.]

70 to 80 Percent of Indian Sewage 'Flows Untreated into Rivers'

Official government data from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) alongside independent environmental studies consistently report that roughly 70 percent to 80 percent of India's urban sewage ends up discharged untreated directly into rivers, lakes, and groundwater. India's urban centers generate over 72,000 million liters of sewage per day, yet the installed operational capacity of the nation's sewage treatment plants handles only about 28 percent to 30 percent of that total. The remaining raw wastewater—exceeding 70 percent daily—flows unchecked into local ecosystems, making untreated domestic sewage the single largest contributor to water pollution across the country's major river basins. [Source: India Water Portal]

In the early 2010s, about 80 percent of India's sewage was reportedly discharged untreated into rivers, according to a 2013 report by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). Indian cities were producing nearly 40,000 million liters of sewage each day, but only about 20 percent was being treated. The report, titled “Excreta Does Matter,” warned that untreated sewage was contaminating major rivers that served as important sources of drinking water. It concluded that “untreated sewage is killing Indian rivers.” [Source: AFP, March 5, 2013]

The report attributed the problem to weak or nonexistent enforcement of environmental laws, rapid urban development and limited public awareness of the dangers posed by untreated sewage. A 2011 survey by India's Central Pollution Control Board found that only 160 of nearly 8,000 towns had both sewerage systems and sewage-treatment plants. Scientists involved in the CSE study also found that thousands of small factories were discharging untreated sewage into rivers. In some cases, toxic waste was being mixed with freshwater, further increasing the risks to water supplies.

The contamination also affected groundwater. The CSE researchers' laboratory tests found that nitrate levels were above prescribed limits in almost the entire country, which the report linked to sewage seeping into groundwater supplies. The report warned that untreated waste entering rivers and groundwater represented a long-term public-health threat. “The untreated waste dumped into rivers seeps into groundwater, thereby creating a ticking health bomb in India,” it stated. Environmental groups also criticized the government for failing to regulate water use adequately.

The problem was expected to become more difficult as India's demand for water increased. Environmentalists estimated that the country's annual water consumption could nearly double by 2050, placing additional pressure on already inadequate sewage and wastewater infrastructure. The combination of rapid urban growth, limited treatment capacity and weak enforcement meant that large quantities of wastewater continued to enter rivers and groundwater without treatment.

Flaming Lakes, Dead Rivers — Impact of India's Untreated Sewage

India generated about 72 billion liters of sewage in urban areas each day in 2020–21, but approximately 45 billion liters went untreated, according to government figures cited by AFP. That amount was equivalent to about 18,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools of untreated sewage entering the environment each day. About two-thirds of urban homes were not connected to a sewerage system, according to the National Faecal Sludge and Septage Management Alliance. Many existing sewage-treatment plants also failed to meet required standards; media reports cited 26 of Delhi's 35 treatment facilities as noncompliant. The problem was expected to grow as India's urban population expanded, with more than 270 million additional people projected to live in cities by 2040. [Source: Simon Sturdee, AFP, May 3, 2023]

The consequences were visible in communities such as Seelampur in Delhi, where open drains carried plastic and black sludge through narrow residential lanes. Mohammed Azhar, a 21-year-old resident, said, “We stay inside our homes. We fall sick if we go out.” He described the sewage as a source of foul odors, mosquitoes and recurring illness among children, adding, “There is no one to clean the filth.” Untreated sewage, combined with large quantities of industrial wastewater, was polluting rivers and lakes, contributing to disease, harming wildlife and allowing contaminants to enter groundwater.

The Yamuna River in Delhi was described as among the world's most polluted rivers and as ecologically dead in some areas, although people continued to wash clothes and take ritual baths in it. The river frequently developed thick white foam, while drinking-water treatment facilities serving Delhi's approximately 20 million residents sometimes shut down because of dangerous ammonia concentrations. Elsewhere, the situation was also severe. In Bengaluru, Bellandur Lake had caught fire on several occasions when methane produced by bacteria feeding on sewage in oxygen-depleted water ignited at the surface. Diarrheal disease, largely associated with contaminated food and water, remained a major health problem; a study published in BMC Public Health estimated that more than 55,000 Indian children under age 5 died from diarrhea in 2019.

New Delhi's Polluted Yamuna River

New Delhi’s Yamuna River is severely polluted by untreated sewage, industrial waste, and urban development. In 2009, the river was described as one of the most polluted waterways in India, with the 13-mile (21-kilometer) stretch through the capital unable to support aquatic life. The city received about 70 percent of its drinking water from the Yamuna, even though large quantities of sewage were discharged into it each day. [Source: Rama Lakshmi, Washington Post, December 17, 2009]

The Yamuna’s pollution has resulted from rapid population growth, inadequate sewage treatment, industrial activity, and development along the river’s floodplains. New Delhi was reportedly discharging about 870 million gallons (3.3 billion liters) of sewage into the Yamuna daily, but only about 200 million gallons (760 million liters) was treated. Upstream water use by farms and factories also reduced the river to a small flow as it passed through the capital, making pollution more concentrated.

The Yamuna’s condition reflected a wider problem affecting India’s major rivers. Population growth, urbanization, industrial waste, agricultural pollution, and religious practices had contributed to the deterioration of waterways. India had established the National River Conservation Plan to protect 38 polluted rivers and had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on sewage treatment plants, toilets, and electric crematoria. Despite these efforts, government officials acknowledged that major rivers such as the Yamuna and Ganges had shown little improvement.

Delhi authorities planned additional interceptor sewers and connections to sewage-treatment plants, while upstream reservoirs were being developed to increase water flow during dry periods. Environmental groups also organized river-cleaning activities, public-awareness campaigns, and school visits to encourage residents to recognize the river as an important part of the city. Public pressure had also led to the suspension of proposals for developments such as a heliport, a Formula One racing track, and a cricket school on the Yamuna riverbed.

Pollution in the Ganges

The Ganges river basin is one of the most populous river basins on Earth, home to more than 400 million people. Some 345 million gallons of raw sewage, tons of plastic waster and 70 million gallons of industrial waste flows into the Ganges everyday. Dead goats, monkeys and occasion dead beggars can be seen floating in it. The amounts of fecal bacteria sometimes reach lethal levels. Diseases that have been caught bathing in the river include hepatitis amoebic dysentery, jaundice and cholera. It has been said that there are so many toxins in the Ganges that even bacteria won’t grow in it. Even so, Indians drink water from the river, bathe in it and irrigate their crops with it.

According to the National Ganga River Basin Authority, which is trying to clean up the river, the amount of toxins, chemicals and dangerous bacteria found in it is now almost 3000 times higher than is considered safe by the World Health Organisation. “As a 10-year-old I remember swimming in the river; the water was clear and green - you could see all the way through to the bottom,” Abdul Kalam, 78, who has lived in Varanasi all his life, told the Times in 2014. “I remember seeing sawfish, turtles and gharials swimming out in the monsoons. Now the water is dirty, black, and hidden by all the rubbish. It has changed so much I cannot believe it.” [Source: Robin Pagnamenta, The Times, June 2, 2014]

Much of the pollution in the Ganges is from untreated sewage. The centuries-old sewer in Varanasi is overtaxed and the water treatment facility doesn't work, partly because the local power stations can't supply it with enough electricity. Raw sewage plummets into the river from half a dozen places at a rate of 3,500 gallons a minute. On the northern edge of the city, near where the Aryans built their first camp, the water is so foul that bubbles from chemical reactions form. The smell of the toxic brew is so horrible that even seasoned boatmen hold their nose as they paddle. Plastic waste and other trash accumulate in and along the Ganges and its tributaries all year. But most of the waste is flushed into the river and out to the Bay of Bengal during the monsoon rains, which last from June to September. [Source: Geoffrey Ward, Smithsonian magazine, September 1985]

Decay and Conservation of Dal Lake in Kashmir

Dal Lake, in Srinagar, Kashmir, has faced prolonged environmental deterioration caused by sewage pollution, encroachment, silt accumulation, weed growth, and inadequate waste management. The lake, often described as one of Kashmir's most important natural and tourist attractions, has also supported communities that depend on fishing, floating gardens, vegetable cultivation, and tourism. [Source: Vishal Arora, The Diplomat, June 28, 2017; The Dawn, October 14, 2009; Alistair Scrutton, Reuters, May 30, 2007]

Dal Lake used to polluted and still is to some degree. For a while raw sewage flowed into it. An effort has been made to clean up the unsightly vegetation. In 2004, weed-eating grass carp from China were introduced to get rid of the plants. A 2007 Reuters report said the lake had lost about half its area over several decades, declining to approximately 13 square kilometers (5 square miles). The deterioration was associated with encroachment, agricultural activity, untreated sewage, and the construction of buildings and other structures on reclaimed areas. A state audit reported high concentrations of toxic metals linked to sewage pollution, with pollutants detected in lake water and fish. Water testing cited in the report found arsenic concentrations far above permissible levels.

Untreated wastewater from homes, hotels, and houseboats was identified as a major source of pollution. Sewage entering the lake encouraged excessive growth of aquatic weeds and algae, which reduced oxygen levels and affected other aquatic organisms. Plastic waste, detergents, and other household waste were also reported in the water. More than 1,000 houseboats operated on the lake at the time, and authorities sought to require them to install systems for managing wastewater rather than discharge it directly into the lake.

The government launched conservation programs involving sewage-treatment facilities, drainage improvements, weed removal, and measures to control encroachment. One controversial part of the strategy involved relocating thousands of people living around or on the lake. Officials argued that some residents discharged sewage and waste into the water and expanded floating agricultural areas by depositing mud, weeds, and other materials. Environmental authorities also considered the removal of settlements and the rehabilitation of reclaimed areas necessary to restore the lake.

The relocation program faced opposition from many lake residents who depended on the water and floating gardens for their livelihoods. Farmers argued that moving to residential colonies without employment or other sources of income would threaten their ability to support their families. Some residents also questioned whether compensation for their homes and land would provide a sustainable alternative to their existing livelihoods.

Filmmaker Abdul Rashid Bhat highlighted these conflicts in his 2017 documentary, “The Bitter Truth – Dal Losing Battle Between Locals & the Authorities.” The film included residents, government officials, and environmentalists and examined the environmental decline of Dal Lake as well as the effects of relocation proposals on communities that had lived there for generations.

Conservation efforts have continued to face the challenge of balancing environmental restoration with the economic and social needs of people living around the lake. The condition of Dal Lake has therefore become both an environmental issue and a dispute over how its limited space and resources should be managed.

Dried Up Polluted Lake in West Bengal Becomes a Pilgrim Destination

A polluted and largely dried-up lake near Nakali village in West Bengal, about 70 kilometers (45 miles) south of Kolkata, became a pilgrimage site in 2009–2010 after rumors spread that its mud and water could cure cancer and other illnesses. Thousands of people, mainly Hindus from across the region, reportedly traveled to the site, particularly on Tuesdays and Saturdays, which are considered auspicious days in Bengal. [Source: AFP, May 28, 2010]

Pilgrims entered the muddy lake, covered their bodies and hair with its dark, sticky sediment, and in some cases drank the water or took mud home. Vendors set up stalls selling food and drinks to the visitors. According to local accounts, the pilgrimage was linked to a rumor that a man had been cured of liver cancer after bathing in the lake. The man, Hiranmoy Raj, reportedly later died from the disease.

Members of the family that owned the lake said the religious activity began after Hiranmoy Raj claimed to have dreamed of a snake goddess who told him that bathing in the pond could cure serious diseases. Images of snake goddesses were placed near the lake by visitors who believed they had benefited from the ritual. Local accounts estimated that the site had attracted hundreds of thousands of visitors, although attendance was reportedly declining because of the summer heat.

West Bengal authorities attempted to discourage people from bathing in or drinking from the lake because of concerns about severe pollution. Police were stationed at the site, but large numbers of pilgrims continued to arrive. Government officials said they were concerned about the health risks while acknowledging the difficulty of preventing people from practicing a religious ritual they believed in.

Some residents and visitors defended the lake's supposed healing properties. One pilgrim told AFP that his wife, who had suffered from throat cancer, had improved after applying mud from the lake to her body. Such claims were not supported by medical evidence.

The pilgrimage reflected broader Hindu traditions involving sacred water and ritual bathing. Bathing in rivers and other bodies of water is an important religious practice for many Hindus, with some devotees believing that sacred bathing can provide spiritual purification and, in some traditions, relief from illness.

Indian rationalist groups rejected the claims about the lake's healing properties. Prabir Ghosh of the Science and Rationalist Association of India described the belief as superstition and argued that the polluted lake represented a public health hazard. Rationalist activists campaigning against the pilgrimage reportedly faced hostility and, according to Ghosh, some were physically attacked while expressing their views at the site.

Efforts to Clean Up India’s Waterways

India has undertaken a range of efforts to improve the quality of its polluted rivers, lakes, and groundwater, including community water-treatment projects, river-cleanup campaigns, sewage treatment, and large-scale urban riverfront redevelopment. These efforts have sought to address contamination from untreated sewage, industrial waste, agricultural chemicals, solid waste, and inadequate sanitation while expanding access to safer water.

One approach has been the establishment of community water-treatment plants in rural areas. The Naandi Foundation, working with government agencies and corporate partners, established filtration centers that used technologies such as reverse osmosis and ultraviolet treatment to remove dissolved contaminants and kill bacteria in groundwater. By 2012, the organization had opened hundreds of plants serving about 1.5 million people in several Indian states. The projects combined government and private financing with village participation, while users paid modest fees to cover maintenance and operation. [Source: Amy Yee, New York Times, March, 21, 2012]

River-cleanup campaigns have also involved citizen volunteers. In New Delhi, hundreds of volunteers collected garbage from the Yamuna River and its banks in 2010, drawing attention to the large quantities of sewage, plastic, and industrial waste entering the river. Officials and environmental groups identified untreated wastewater and industrial discharges as major sources of pollution. The Yamuna is an important source of water for Delhi, although water drawn from the river requires extensive treatment before it can be supplied to residents. [Source: Associated Press, June 2010]

The Sabarmati Riverfront project in Ahmedabad represented a different approach to urban waterway rehabilitation. Beginning in the early 2000s, authorities redeveloped an approximately 11-kilometer (7-mile) section of the river and replaced areas of informal settlement and accumulated waste with paved riverfront areas, drainage infrastructure, public spaces, and other facilities. The project also involved managing water flows through canals and barrages to maintain water in a river channel that had often been dry. Supporters presented the redevelopment as an example of urban river restoration and improved public access. [Source: Shashank Bengali, Los Angeles Times, August 16, 2014]

The Sabarmati project also demonstrated the social challenges associated with large-scale environmental redevelopment. Tens of thousands of people living along the river were relocated, with many moved to housing on the outskirts of Ahmedabad. Some families reported inadequate housing, limited access to water and transportation, loss of nearby employment, and difficulties obtaining promised apartments. Activists argued that the environmental and aesthetic improvements had imposed significant costs on low-income residents.

India's experience has shown that improving water quality requires more than installing treatment technology. Reliable sewage systems, industrial regulation, waste management, financing, maintenance, public participation, and protection of affected communities are also important. Efforts to restore India's waterways have therefore combined environmental engineering with public health measures and, in some cases, major changes to the communities and urban areas surrounding rivers.

Flooding Helps Clean Up the Yamuna River in Delhi

Flooding in the Yamuna River in New Delhi in September 2025 was followed by a sharp improvement in water quality. Earlier in August, fecal coliform levels in the river were about 54,000 most probable number per 100 milliliters. Just before the river overflowed on September 4, levels had fallen to between 790 and 3,500 most probable number per 100 milliliters. [Source: Michelle Rochniak, The Cool Down, October 27, 2025]

Bhim Singh Rawat of the South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers, and People said the Yamuna showed “significant improvement” in key water-quality parameters, primarily because of the flooding. He said large volumes of floodwater from the Hatnikund barrage had reached Delhi and were passing through the river, flushing out accumulated pollutants.

The event indicated the importance of healthy river flow in reducing pollution. According to the report, flowing water can flush pollutants from a river, restore oxygen levels, reduce fecal contamination and support aquatic life. Rainfall contributed to the flooding, but the movement of large volumes of water through the river was considered the main factor in removing pollutants.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Library of Congress, CIA World Factbook, Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Encyclopedia.com, Live Science, The Conversation, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Google AI, Wikipedia, The Guardian and various websites, books and other publications.

Last updated October 2026