SIKHS AFTER THE TEN GURUS — IN THE 18TH, 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

SIKHS AFTER THE TENTH GURU

The Ten Guru Sikh institution established after Guru Nanak's death in 1539 lasted until shortly after the death of the Tenth Guru, Gobind Singh in 1708. In the tumultuous 18th century, a Sikh kingdom arose and then dissolved into several feudal states and the Sikhs became a confederation of warrior tribes.

The history of Sikhism is as much political as it is religious. From the mid 15th century the Punjab region had been under the control of Muslim Mughals, who had moved there from Pakistan and Afghanistan. Until the early 1700s the Muslim rulers were tolerant of Sikhism and other religious beliefs but all that changed in the early 17th century when Mughal emperor Jahangir (1569–1627) came to power. He opposed Sikhism and was determined to convert its followers, including their gurus, to Islam. As a result of this persecution Sikhism became more militaristic. In the decades that followed, Sikhs armed themselves and participated in military training to defend themselves and their faith. Fierce battles took place between Sikh and Muslim armies, In the early eighteenth century, under the military leadership of Banda Singh Bahadur (1670–1716), the Sikhs had become an efficient fighting force. [Source: World Religions Reference Library, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Due in part to conflicts with the Mughals, the Sikhs established the Khalsa in 1699. The Khalsa is a brotherhood and sisterhood of followers who join the Sikh community by undertaking certain rituals. It has a militaristic orientation and Its purpose was to defend the Sikh community (Panth). As the Sikh community developed a military and political organization, Sikhism became a significant force in 18th and 19th century India. Toward the end of the Mughal Empire (1526-1858), a Sikh kingdom arose under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, with a capital in Lahore and boundaries that extended from the Khyber Pass in Afghanistan to China. Eventually, this kingdom (1799-1849) came under British control after the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1846 and 1848-1849).

A long period of internal strife ended under Ranjit Singh and the Sikh kingdom. After his death, however, the Sikhs rapidly declined in power and deviated from the teachings of the gurus by tolerating widow burning (sati ), cow veneration, and caste division among Sikhs. After they fell under British rule in 1848, Christian and Hindu missionaries became active. In response the Singh Sabha society was formed to bring back Sikh culture and ethics by fostering education and teaching the Granth Sahib. Sikh missionaries were appointed, and the Khalsa Tract Society was organized to distribute religious literature.[Source: Arvind-Pal S. Mandair, “Encyclopedia of India”, Thomson Gale, 2006]

Tumultuous Times for the Sikhs in the 18th Century

The Sikhs faced their most difficult period during the early few decades of the 18th century, with their fate often determined by how well to which they could assert themselves against Mughal forces in the southeast and incursions of the Afghans in the northwest, while maintaining good relations with the local Hindu princes in Punjab. [Source: Arvind-Pal S. Mandair, “Encyclopedia of India”, Thomson Gale, 2006]

By the mid-18th century, the Sikhs had organized themselves into twelve separate militia units, known as misls. These groups played a crucial role in the eventual removal of the Mughals from power. Under them Sikh guerillas challenged the Mughal (Mogul) overlords and contributed to the collapse of Mughal administration in the Punjab. They also helped keep Afghan invaders out when they invaded India between 1747 and 1769. One of the most famous Sikh heros was Baba Deep Singh. During a battle to save the Golden Temple from desecration he reportedly had his head cut off but kept right on fighting with a sword in one hand and his head in the other.

By the middle of the 18th century, Sikhs had become a formidable political force and military power and .conquered the majority of the Punjab region and established several feudal states.. By the end of the 18th century, the Sikhs had established their own state.

Nader Shah’s Encounter with the Sikhs

Nader Shah Afshar was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Persia (Iran) and one of the most powerful rulers in Persian history, ruling as shah of from 1736 to 1747. In the mid 17th century, he lead a campaign against Afghanis in the Punjab, present-day northwest India and Pakistan. During this campaign her incurred in areas where the Sikhs lived.

“Biographies of Great Sikh Warriors of 17th to 20th century. by Guru Arjan Dev ji reads: Eventhough Nadir Shah never fought Sikhs in direct engagement... After defeating Mughals he was returning to his native country of Iran with thousands of captives (slaves), and looted gold and other valuables. When he reached Punjab, Sikhs harassed his baggage train and snatched back much of looted valuables. Nadir Shah's forces were no match for bands of 25-50 Sikhs who would gallop on their horses attack, save some slaves and then retreat. This form of Sikh attack was called Dhai Put. In one instance, Nadir Shah ordered to follow Sikhs for as long as it take, So Sikhs attacked, Nadir Shah forces pursued them then suddenly Sikhs turned back and fought head on while sorrounding them to mercilessly kill all the pursuers. Thus Sikhs who were very small in numbers, won the small skirmishes and battles due to their superior tactics and noble cause. The dreaded Persian was astonished at the daring exhibited by the Sikhs.

He called a halt at Lahore. He questioned Zakariya Khan, Governor of Lahore, about them. 'Whence,' demanded the imperious Nadir, 'come those long haired barbarians who dare to molest me ? Who are these mischief-makers ?' Zakariya Khan replied, 'They are a group of fakirs who visit their Guru's tank twice a year, and, after bathing in it, disappear.' 'Where do they live ? Destroy them and their homes, or they will destroy you.' 'Their homes are the saddles on their horses,' was the reply. 'Take care,' said Nadir, 'the day is not distant when these rebels will take possession of your country.' Said Nadir Shah.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839) and the Fabulous Sikh Kingdom

The twelve misls were finally unified under the Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh, who emerged as leader of a Khalsa band, at the end of the 18th century. In 1799, when he was only 19 years old , Ranjit Singh peacefully seized power in the city of Lahore. Guided by Sada Kaur (1762–1832), his mother-in-law, Ranjit Singh integrated twelve warring Sikh bands into a sovereign state. [Source: Louis E. Fenech, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 3: South Asia,” edited by Paul Hockings, 1992 |~|]

In 1801, the Sikhs crowned Ranjit Singh the Maharaja of the Punjab. Also known as the 'Lion of the Punjab,' ruled for forty years until death in 1839. He established a formidable army and expanded his kingdom by adding Multan, Kashmir, and Peshawar. His court was renowned for its unparalleled pageantry and brilliance. Additionally, he was known for wearing the world's largest diamond, the Kohinoor, on his right arm. Despite this, the Maharaja was a devout Sikh who built and renovated many shrines. Even his foreign employees had to live by the Sikh code: they had to wear their beards long and refrain from eating beef and from smoking tobacco. Among Sikhs, Maharajah Ranjit Singh is given credit for giving the Golden Temple (Harimandir) in Amritsar its current appearance by covering it in gold leaf.

Maharaja Singh, the "Lion of Punjab," ruled over all of the Punjab from Lahore. A series of successful campaigns against the Afghans and Pathans, resulted in Ranjit Singh capturing India's northwestern frontier by the 1820s. He hired American and European mercenary soldiers to train his artillery, and also incorporated contingents of Hindus and Muslims into his army. Disunity among the Afghans allowed the Sikhs to conquered the cities and provinces of Peshawar and Multan from them.

Pashaura Singh wrote in the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”: The rule in the Punjab under Maharaja Ranjit Singh from 1799 to 1839 brought settled conditions for the Sikh community, and territorial expansion attracted people of different cultural and religious backgrounds into the fold of Sikhism. The Maharaja. patronized scribes, who made beautiful copies of the standard version of the Sikh scripture that were sent as gifts to the Sikh takhats (thrones) and other major historical gurdwaras. Maharaja Ranjit Singh's rule was marked by religious diversity within the Sikh Panth. [Source: Pashaura Singh, “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”, Thomson Gale, 2006]

British Takeover Sikh Territory

After Maharajah Ranjit Singh died in 1839 the political side of Sikhism suffered. In-fighting broke out among his successors and the Sikh kingdom fell into disarray. A decade after Ranjit Singh’s death, in 1849, the Sikhs lost their enormous and splendid kingdom to the British after a series of hard-fought battles.

After the British defeated the Sikhs in 1849 they took the Punjab Valley and Peshawar Valley. One of the results of this war was that Gulab Singh, the ruler of Jammu, was given Kashmir as a prize for providing the British with help in their campaign against the Sikhs. This planted the seed for the dispute over Kashmir by Pakistan and India.

Ranjit Singh's wife, Maharani Jindan (1817–1863) prospered under the British. She was famous for her sharp intelligence, and the British referred to her as the only courageous "man" in the area. The last Sikh king, Maharajah Dhulip Singh (1838–1893), adopted Christianity and was exiled to England. He gave the the Koh-i-nur, to Queen Victoria, who had it cut down to fit her crown.

Sikh Wars

Punjab. Ranjit Singh had maintained a policy of wary friendship with the British, ceding some territory south of the Sutlej River, while at the same time building up his military forces both to deter aggression by the British and to wage war against the Afghans.

After Ranjit Singh died in 1839, and political conditions in Punjab deteriorated, and the British fought two wars with the Sikhs, one lasting from 1845 to 1846 and another from 1848 to 1849. The First Sikh War ended with Treaty of Lahore in which the British gained more territory. The Second Sikh War saw the annexation of Punjab, including the present-day North-West Frontier Province, to the British East India Company's territories.

British forces were too powerful for the Sikhs during the Sikh Wars (also known as the Anglo-Sikh wars). The key engagement of the first war was Battle of Aliwal in January and February 1846, which the British won by eliminating the Sikh bridgehead. The main British army was reinforced with a fresh division. They attacked the main Sikh bridgehead at Sobraon. The Sikh leader Tej Singh is said to have deserted the Sikh army early in the battle. Although the Sikh army resisted stubbornly, the British eventually broke into their position. The bridges behind the Sikhs broke under British artillery fire, or were ordered to be destroyed behind him by Tej Singh. The Sikh army was trapped. None of them surrendered, and the British troops showed little mercy. This defeat effectively broke the Sikh army.

Sikhs Under the British

The British were impressed by the courage and martial prowess demonstrated by the Sikhs in the Sikh Wars. They took great pains to conciliate the Sikhs and were largely successful during the heyday of the Raj. The British showed respect for the Sikh religion, which was more compatible with Victorian Protestant values than any of the other faiths of India.

Generations of heroic Sikhs began to serve the British army, valorously fighting in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Sikhs formed a major part of the imperial army in World War I. The British viewed the Sikhs as a martial race and actively recruited them beginning in the mid 19th century for their military forces in India. The exposure of these Sikh soldiers to the outside world launched the first waves of Sikh emigration, to Britain and to British colonies in Malaysia, Burma, Africa and other places.

Some British officers were very cruel and brutal but many were regarded as fair and were respected. One Pathan old-timer told National Geographic in the 1970s: "The British were good to fight. They were honorable men. When they were about to bombard our villages, they always warned us before hand so we could move our women, children and old people to safety. When the fighting was over, we could sit down and be friends. disagreed. He told National Geographic in 1996, "The British did not come here for the climate. They robbed us blind. But they did have a sense of public propriety."

Sikh Reform Movements and Singh Sabha

Arvind-Pal S. Mandair wrote in the “Encyclopedia of India”: “The advent of British colonial rule not only marks the entry of Sikhism into Western modernity, but also the emergence of three reform movements (the Nirankaris, the Namdharis, and the Singh Sabha movement), each attempting to revive a sense of separate religious identity among Sikhs at a time when most such traditions were considered to be sects of Hinduism. The Namdharis, founded by Baba Dyal Das (1783–1853), took their name from their condemnation of idolatry and participation in Hindu rituals that had become prevalent among many Sikhs. [Source: Arvind-Pal S. Mandair, “Encyclopedia of India”, Thomson Gale, 2006]

The Namdharis, founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816–1884), came to be regarded as a separatist movement when they instituted a separate baptismal ritual and code of conduct. Ram Singh advocated strict vegetarianism, the wearing of all-white dress, and loud chanting, which led to their nickname, kukas (howlers), because of their spontaneous outbursts during devotional trances. In 1871 the Namdharis came into conflict with the British when they violently opposed the colonial administration's reintroduction of cow slaughter (previously banned by Maharaja Ranjit Singh), and in the process killed Muslim butchers in Amritsar and Ludhiana. The British ruthlessly suppressed the uprising by tying sixty-five Namdharis to the mouths of cannons, blowing them to pieces.

By far the most influential Sikh reformist movement was the Singh Sabha, founded under aristocratic patronage. Louis E. Fenech, wrote in the “Encyclopedia of World Cultures”: This movement emphasized that Sikhs were a unique people and that Sikhism was a unique dispensation which was in no way affiliated with either Hinduism or Islam. It was this group which standardized the history and practices of the Sikhs and made these conform to general nineteenth-century European ideas about religion and history. This standardization is also indebted to the heroic displays of the Akali movement (1920-1925) which strove to free Sikh shrines, gurdwaras, from the hands of their corrupt hereditary managers. [Source: Louis E. Fenech, “Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 3: South Asia,” edited by Paul Hockings, 1992 |~|]

“Maharaja Ranjit Singh loved pomp and ceremony, and at his court he reintroduced many of the Brahmanic rites that had been discarded by the Sikh gurus. Later, under colonial rule, Christian missionaries started to make conversions among the Sikhs. In response to this loss of Sikh identity, the Singh Sabha movement was founded in Amritsar in 1873. Its goal was to reform and renew Sikh philosophy and culture. Similar movements were founded by Hindus and Muslims to counteract Christian missionary activity. The Singh Sabha promoted the building of Sikh schools and colleges; one of its greatest achievements was the founding of the Khalsa College at Amritsar in 1892. The Singh Sabha also encouraged the production of books and newspapers to help bring Sikhs back to the teachings of their ten gurus. Bhai Vir Singh, the most prolific and inspiring Singh Sabha author, created vivid female characters like Sundari, Rani Raj Kaur, and Subhag Kaur as paradigms for Sikh morality. |~|

Sikhs in The Early 20th Century

In the early 20th century Sikhs was able to implement some reforms. Pashaura Singh wrote: The Anand Marriage Act of 1909 the Tat Khalsa reformers secured legal recognition of a distinctive ritual for Sikh weddings, and they reestablished direct Khalsa control of the major historical gurdwaras, many of which had fallen over the years into the hands of corrupt Mahants (Custodians) supported by the British. Inspired by the Tat Khalsa ideal, the Akali movement of the 1920s eventually secured British assent to the Sikh Gurdwaras Act of 1925. [Source:Pashaura Singh, “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”, Thomson Gale, 2006]

The immediate effect of the act was to make available to the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC; Chief Management Committee of Sikh Shrines) the enormous political and economic benefits that came from control of the gurdwaras. In 1950, after a consensus was reached within the Sikh community, the standard manual, entitled Sikh Rahit Maryada, was published under the auspices of the SGPC. The manual has ever since been regarded as an authoritative statement of Sikh doctrine and behavior. The SGPC continues to be the highest Sikh executive committee. With its headquarters in Amritsar, it sets up rules and regulations for Sikhs to follow throughout the world. Parallel to the SGPC, the Akali Dal (Army of the Followers of the Timeless One) has functioned as a Sikh political party.|~|

According to the World Religions Reference Library: “In the twentieth century, however, tensions increased again. In the 1920s Indian nationalists, including many Sikhs, began to call for independence from British rule. (Nationalists promote the establishment of their own state.) Although as many as 100,000 Sikhs fought on the side of the British during World War II (1939–45; a war in which Great Britain, France, the United States, and their allies defeated Germany, Italy, and Japan), Sikhs generally supported Indian independence. Agreements between Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus originally guaranteed that minorities in India would have their rights respected. At the end of the summer of 1946, however, the president of the Indian National Congress (the organization that led the Indian independence movement) rejected that agreement. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) declared that the Congress would not be bound by agreements made while the British were in control of the country. [Source: World Religions Reference Library, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: “World Religions“ edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions“ edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); “Encyclopedia of the World Cultures: Volume 3 South Asia” edited by David Levinson (G.K. Hall & Company, New York, 1994); “The Creators “ by Daniel Boorstin; National Geographic, the New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Times of London, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated December 2023