POLLUTION IN MONGOLIA: AIR, WATER, COAL, LEAD, GERS

POLLUTION IN MONGOLIA

Thermal Power Plant in Ulaanbaatar in 2023

Some areas that have been deforestated and overgrazed have turned into desert. After a winter of little snow, wildfires spread across northern Mongolia from March until June of 1996. The fires were the most extensive since records were first compiled in 1978, resulting in 26 deaths and nearly 800 people injured or rendered homeless. [Source: Worldmark Encyclopedia of Nations, Thomson Gale, 2007]

Water pollution is a particularly significant problem in Mongolia because the water supply is limited in many areas. The country's air pollution problems are due to increased industrial activity within the country, including the burning of soft coal, and airborne industrial pollution from the former Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The heavy concentration of factories in Ulaanbaatar has polluted the environment in that area.

William MacNamara wrote in the New York Times, “The concept of a “blue sky country” has become almost a cliché in presentations about Mongolia, the world’s fastest-growing economy in the early 2010s. The phrase, which evokes the Montana-like landscape of the steppe, paints a picture of sunny investment horizons in this frontier democracy rich in coal, copper and gold. But visitors to this city, the capital of Mongolia, seldom find a blue sky today. It is smoggy, and soot rains down from the hills, as the poorest residents burn cheap brown coal to stay alive through the winter. [Source: William MacNamara, New York Times, December 10, 2012 |]

According to the OSCA: In the winter, the air quality in Ulaanbaatar is among the worst in the world. Air pollution levels often reach hazardous levels as a result of emissions from coal stoves, power plants, boilers, and vehicles. The poor air quality may trigger health problems (asthma, allergies, and other upper respiratory illnesses). Though the government is taking measures to reduce the pollution, there has not been significant, overall improvement, as growing urbanization means the influx of residents overwhelms efforts to reduce emissions at the individual household level. Winter visitors should use N95 complaint particle masks if spending extended periods outdoors in Ulaanbaatar. [Source: “Mongolia 2015 Crime and Safety Report,” Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department of State ^^^]

Coal and Pollution in Mongolia

Coal devil at the coal storage town of Tsagaan Khad, Mongolia (15 kilometers north from Mongolia-China border), On the way from Oyu Tolgoi mine to the Gashuunsukhait-Ganqimaodao border crossing

Mongolia has abundant supplies of coal. It has about 100 billion tons of coal underground. Many power plants are coal-fired and belch out a lot of smoke. Strip mining scars the pristine countryside. The Baganuur strip mine, developed in the 1980s, produced 2 million tons annually by 1985. The Sharin Gol strip mine, developed in the 1960s, had an annual output of 1.1 million tons in the 1980s. Most Ulaanbaatar’s coal now comes from Baganuur.[Source: Library of Congress, June 1989 *]

Coal is linked with many environmental problems in Mongolia. The main power plants for Ulaanbaatar are inefficient combined heat and power stations built by the former Soviet Union. One was built in 1965, the other in 1984. There are responsible for much of the air pollution in Ulaanbaatar.

There is also problems created by mining. Bill Donahue wrote in the Washington Post: “The mining industry is now carving millions of tons of rock out of Mongolian soil each year, and using Mongolia’s sparse water supplies to process the minerals. In many places throughout Mongolia, the water table is dropping, making it difficult to sustain livestock.” [Source: Bill Donahue, Washington Post, September 20, 2013]

Terrence Edwards wrote in Los Angeles Times: The Mongolians have to use coal because it's much cheaper than oil or gas for them. The boom in coal mining in Mongolia is related to China's booming economy. When China replaces coal with other fuels such as natural gas and oil, the boom will slow down. [Source: Terrence Edwards, Los Angeles Times, May 15, 2015]

Mining and Water Pollution in Mongolia

According to the Goldman Environmental Prize: On the sprawling, sparsely populated steppes of Mongolia, outdated and unregulated mining practices have put waterways across the country in jeopardy. With most of its population living in poverty in rural areas and many working as semi-nomadic herdsman, Mongolia faces a serious challenge: to utilize their resources in international trade and to regulate industry in order to protect the natural environment that supports citizens living in very tough conditions. With an unwavering commitment to address this challenge, Munkhbayar is leading the effort to protect Mongolia’s precious water resources from the dangers of unregulated mining.[Source: Goldman Environmental Prize]

Mongolians living in rural areas rely on the many rivers and tributaries to provide drinking water for themselves and their herds. Today, more than 30 tributaries of the Onggi River (one of the largest rivers in the country) have dried up due to unregulated mining that uses high-pressure water systems to extract minerals. In a country where water is sparse to begin with, the corruption of established water sources has dire consequences.

mine in Erdenet

After the fall of the USSR, when former Soviet allies ushered in a new era of free market development, environmental activitsts became increasingly concerned about the shrinking river, both for the people who rely on the resource and for the protection of lands his family has lived on for centuries. As gold mining greatly expanded, more than 30 companies were allowed to mine along Onggi River tributaries. Indiscriminate, illicit mining and weak law enforcement resulted in the rapid destruction of the environment and natural resources across Mongolia.

Air Pollution in Ulaanbaatar

Ulaanbaatar has long struggled with severe air pollution, particularly during the winter months. The city has been identified by the World Health Organization as one of the most polluted urban areas in the world. A 2011 World Bank report found that residents were exposed to fine particulate matter at levels six to seven times higher than the World Health Organization's most lenient air quality guidelines. Pollution levels are especially high in winter, when emissions from household heating, power plants, and vehicles become trapped over the city. [Source: Michael Kohn, New York Times, February 3, 2012; Terrence Edwards, Los Angeles Times, May 15, 2015; Michael Kohn, Reuters, October 17, 2011]

Ulaanbaatar is the coldest national capital in the world. Winter temperatures frequently fall well below freezing, and heating is essential for survival. Many residents of the city's ger districts burn coal and other fuels for warmth, producing large amounts of smoke. Because the city lies in a valley surrounded by hills and mountains, pollutants often become trapped close to the ground, creating thick smog that can persist for months. Winter conditions can extend into April, prolonging the pollution season.

The city's geography and climate contribute significantly to the problem. Ulaanbaatar was already prone to poor air quality before rapid economic growth and population increases intensified emissions. Seasonal dust storms in spring add airborne particles to the atmosphere and can contribute to respiratory and eye problems. Visitors arriving during winter often see a dense brown layer of smog covering the city. Representatives of international organizations working on air quality issues have described winter pollution levels in some neighborhoods as difficult to endure because of breathing discomfort and smoke exposure.

World Health Organization studies have measured very high concentrations of PM10, airborne particles smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter. The WHO reported an annual average PM10 concentration of 279 micrograms per cubic meter in Ulaanbaatar, one of the highest levels recorded globally. By comparison, Washington, D.C., recorded an annual average concentration of only 18 micrograms per cubic meter. Pollution levels in Ulaanbaatar vary greatly by season, remaining relatively low during summer but reaching critical levels in winter. In some of the most heavily affected districts, PM10 concentrations have been measured at up to 2,000 micrograms per cubic meter during severe pollution episodes.

In 2015, the United States Embassy in Ulaanbaatar began monitoring air quality using methods similar to those employed by the U.S. Embassy in Beijing. The embassy's location near the city center and parliament provides measurements from one of the lowest parts of the valley where pollution often accumulates. Mongolian officials and researchers generally welcomed the additional monitoring because it provided more detailed information about local air quality conditions.

Measurements of PM2.5, even smaller airborne particles that can penetrate deep into the lungs, have also shown serious pollution levels. According to researchers at the Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, average PM2.5 concentrations in Ulaanbaatar have often been about three times higher than World Health Organization recommendations. During periods of severe winter pollution, concentrations have risen to as much as 12 times the recommended limits. Health experts have linked these pollution levels to increased risks of respiratory illness, cardiovascular disease, and other health problems.

Cause’s of Ulaanbaatar Air Pollution: Cars, Gers, Power Plants

smoke coming from gers (yurts)

Coal-fired power plants, motor vehicles and coal-heated yurts contribute to Ulaanbaatar's air pollution. The city’s power and heat largely comes from the city's three Soviet-era coal-fired power stations. The largest source of winter air pollution, however, comes from the city's extensive ger districts. These neighborhoods are home to tens of thousands of families living in traditional felt-covered gers, or yurts, and simple houses. Many residents of these districts are former nomadic herders who migrated to the capital in search of employment, education, and better services. Because most ger districts are not connected to the city's central heating network, households rely on coal-burning stoves to heat their homes during the long, cold winters. [Source: Michael Kohn, New York Times, February 3, 2012; Terrence Edwards, Los Angeles Times, May 15, 2015; Michael Kohn, Reuters, October 17, 2011]

Ulaanbaatar has a population of about 1.3 million people, nearly half of Mongolia's population. Rapid migration to the capital has led to the expansion of ger districts around the city's outskirts. During winter, temperatures commonly fall to minus 30 degrees Celsius (minus 22 degrees Fahrenheit) or lower, creating a heavy demand for heating fuel. As a result, large quantities of raw coal are burned every day, producing thick smoke that often blankets the city.

Environmental studies have found that much of the city's particulate pollution originates in the ger districts. During winter, many of the approximately 150,000 households in these areas burn two or three bags of raw coal each day. The combustion of raw coal releases fine particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury, and carbon dioxide. These pollutants contribute to poor air quality and can have serious health effects.

Motor vehicles are another significant source of pollution. Rapid economic growth and rising car ownership have increased traffic congestion and vehicle emissions throughout the city. Construction activity and dust from unpaved roads and building sites also add airborne particles to the atmosphere, especially during the warmer months.

Air quality experts note that some of the poorest households burn materials other than coal when fuel costs become too high. Garbage, used tires, and other waste materials are sometimes burned for heating, releasing additional toxic substances into the air. Combined with emissions from power plants, vehicles, and coal stoves, these practices contribute to the severe winter smog that regularly affects Ulaanbaatar.

Health Problems Attributed to Ulaanbaatar Pollution

Michael Kohn wrote in the New York Times: “ According to a study produced by the Public Health Institute of Ulaanbaatar, the number of people sickened by respiratory disease increased 45 percent between 2004 and 2008.A 2011 study by Simon Fraser University in British Columbia reported that one in ten deaths in Ulaanbaatar can be attributed to air pollution. [Source: Michael Kohn, New York Times, February 3, 2012 /=/]

Terrence Edwards wrote in Los Angeles Times: Tsoggerel “worries about the long-term cost to her health and that of her husky puppy, Hero. "When people sneeze or get rashes, they say they have allergies, but I don't think that's it. I think it's the pollution," she said. Air pollution here is of particular concern to pregnant women and children. Infants and youngsters growing up in ger districts are most at risk, said Munkh-Erdene, who has researched air quality in Ulaanbaatar and its effect on health for four years. Pneumonia is the most common immediate problem, and long-term exposure can contribute to cardiovascular disease and lung cancer. Air pollution in Ulaanbaatar causes 130 premature deaths among children and 1,440 among adults each year, according to a 2014 report Munkh-Erdene researched with collaborators from UC Berkeley. [Source: Terrence Edwards, Los Angeles Times, May 15, 2015 ]

Michael Kohn reported for Reuters: “Atmospheric scientist Christa Hasenkopf, says breathing the city air over the course of 12 months would be equivalent to living in a home with somebody who smoked 60 cigarettes a day. "It's a rough calculation, but by any measure the air quality in winter is deadly," says Hasenkopf. "The particulates are a main source of respiratory disease because they are so small and can reach deep into the respiratory system." [Source: Michael Kohn, Reuters, October 17, 2011 ==]

Combating Air Pollution in the Ger Suburbs of Ulaanbaatar

Terrence Edwards wrote in Los Angeles Times: “The government has subsidized and distributed more efficient stoves that produce less smoke. Ulaanbaatar leaders want to dismantle the gers and wooden houses. They have long envisioned building affordable apartment complexes, with access to the city's heat and water services. That's still years away, however. [Source: Terrence Edwards, Los Angeles Times, May 15, 2015]

Michael Kohn reported for Reuters: The Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC), a US-funded donor organisation working to clean up air pollution in Ulaanbaatar has developed “heat efficient felt coverings that wrap around the ger and a vestibule fitted around the door. The programme also includes tree planting in ger districts, which for the most part are sprawling patches of waste ground. The MCC is putting US $50 million into the project with additional commitments made by the government. [Source: Michael Kohn, Reuters, October 17, 2011 ==]

“For the government, the long-term solution is to convert the ger areas to more permanent housing, with apartments that can be connected to the central heating grid. But years, perhaps decades, are needed to build the infrastructure required to house a half million people. The government has also proposed banning the use of raw coal in districts close to the city centre, but enforcement of such a ban could be difficult in hard to reach, overcrowded areas. ==

New Stoves Aimed at Improving Ulaanbaatar’s Air Pollution

Michael Kohn reported for Reuters: “Inside a stove showroom deep in the suburbs of this sprawling smoke-filled city, Mam Ivermint, 80, is shopping for a new coal-fired stove — her unlikely contribution to the cause of cleaner air. The cast-iron stove she selects is low tech, but very different from the traditional Mongolian heaters responsible for spewing much of the grit that fills Ulaanbaatar's skies, making it the world's second-most polluted city. It includes features that cut smoke emissions by 80 percent. "I am happy to replace my old stove," said Ivermint, a retired accountant. "This new stove burns much cleaner and is more fuel efficient. It will make our city a cleaner place to live." [Source: Michael Kohn, Reuters, October 17, 2011 ==]

“The plan to swap old stoves for cleaner models is part of a new effort by the government and donor organisations to reduce air pollution in one of the world's smoggiest cities. The World Health Organisation places Ahvaz in southern Iran in the top, most-polluted spot. When Mam Ivermint installs the new heater, her old family stove will not merely be tossed aside. It will be destroyed to prevent others from using it. The plan to swap old stoves for cleaner models is a part of a joint project by the government and the MCC to sell the stoves at subsidised rates. ==

“The original price of the stoves is 325,000 tugrik ($260), but after a subsidies from the MCC and the government, the cost to the buyer falls to 25,000 tugrik ($20). That compares with US$25 to $40 for a traditional stove. Using a unique air flow pattern, the stove allows coal to burn longer than a traditional stove, requiring one third the amount of coal. Most of the coal's particulates are burnt up inside the stove, eliminating four-fifths of the exhaust that exits through the stove pipe. The stoves have been wildly successful so far, with more than 15,000 units sold in less than three months. The MCC hopes to sell an additional 80,000 during the final two years of the project. ==

“Ivermint, a new crusader in the fight against air pollution, hopes the success of the clean stove project will help end to Ulaanbaatar's Dickensian winters. "I am going to advise my neighbours to buy one as well. Nothing will change if only a few buy it," she said. "When I first came to Ulaanbaatar 18 years ago, the city skies were clear, maybe if everyone uses this new stove it can be like that again." ==

Lead Poisoning Among Children in Ulaanbaatar

Studies and surveys conducted in Ulaanbaatar have raised concerns about lead exposure among children, particularly in districts with high levels of air and soil pollution. In February 2017, GoGo News Agency and the Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences conducted blood tests on 15 children ages 7 to 10 living in five different parts of the capital: Da Khuree, Bayankhoshuu, Narantuul Market, the city center, and Zaisan. The tests found blood lead levels ranging from 5.7 to 22 micrograms per deciliter among children living near Da Khuree and Bayankhoshuu, while no lead was detected in the child tested from Zaisan, a relatively affluent residential area with cleaner air and soil. [Source: G. Odgarav, GoGo Mongolia/ANN, March 31, 2017]

Researchers identified several possible sources of lead exposure. In ger districts such as Bayankhoshuu, many households burn raw coal for heating during the winter, producing ash and air pollution that can contain lead and other toxic substances. In the Da Khuree area, which contains numerous auto repair shops and vehicle-related businesses, potential sources of contamination include used motor oil, automotive batteries, soil pollution, and other industrial waste. Lead has also been found in some water containers commonly used in ger districts.

Lead contamination has also been detected in soils across parts of Ulaanbaatar. Research by the Institute of Geography and Geoecology found elevated lead concentrations in several districts with large ger populations. Mongolia's national standard for safe soil lead levels is 100 milligrams per kilogram, but some areas recorded concentrations ranging from 390 to 2,413 milligrams per kilogram. In contrast, lead concentrations in Zaisan generally ranged from 45 to 110.5 milligrams per kilogram, among the lowest levels measured in the city.

Health experts warn that lead exposure can have serious effects on children's development. According to the World Health Organization, there is no known safe level of lead in the blood. Even blood lead concentrations below 5 micrograms per deciliter can affect intelligence, behavior, learning ability, and neurological development. Higher levels of exposure increase the risk and severity of health problems.

Statistics from Mongolia's Health Development Center show significant numbers of children diagnosed with nervous system disorders in districts where pollution levels are high. In 2016, Songinokhairkhan District recorded 761 cases among children, Bayanzurkh District recorded 735 cases, and Khan-Uul District recorded 256 cases. The number of reported nervous system disorders in Songinokhairkhan increased from 498 cases in 2013 to 761 cases in 2016. Although researchers have not established a direct causal relationship between these disorders and lead exposure, health officials and scientists continue to investigate the possible links between environmental pollution and children's health.

Researchers in Mongolia have been studying lead contamination since at least 2010 and have repeatedly called for broader testing and monitoring programs. Public health advocates have urged the government to conduct large-scale blood lead testing among children, identify major sources of contamination, and implement measures to reduce exposure. Concerns about lead pollution remain part of a broader debate over the health effects of air pollution, coal burning, industrial activity, and environmental contamination in Mongolia's rapidly growing capital.

Mongolia, Dumping Ground for Asia’s Nuclear Waste?

Joshua Keating wrote in Foreign Policy, “The U.S. is reportedly in talks with Mongolia about the country setting up an international repository for nuclear waste, reports National Journal. U.S. Energy Department officials and their counterparts in Ulaanbaatar, the Mongolian capital, are in the early stages of discussion and there has been no determination yet about whether to proceed with the idea, according to Richard Stratford, who directs the State Department’s Nuclear Energy, Safety and Security Office. [Source: Joshua Keating, Foreign Policy, March 31, 2011 *]

“Speaking at the biennial Carnegie International Nuclear Policy Conference, Stratford said a spent-fuel depot in the region could be of particular value to Taiwan and South Korea, which use nuclear power but have few options when it comes to disposing of atomic waste. "If Mongolia were to do that, I think that would be a very positive step forward in terms of internationalizing spent-fuel storage," he said during a panel discussion on nuclear cooperation agreements. "My Taiwan and South Korean colleagues have a really difficult time with spent fuel. And if there really was an international storage depot, which I have always supported, then that would help to solve their problem." *

“Stratford is Washington’s lead envoy for nuclear trade pacts, which are sometimes called "123 agreements" after the section of the Atomic Energy Act that governs them. The United States provides fresh uranium rods to selected trade partners in Asia, including South Korea and Taiwan. For Mongolia to accept and store U.S.-origin spent fuel from these or other nations would require Washington to first negotiate a nuclear trade agreement with Ulaanbaatar. *

“Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin had advocated for Russia to take on a similar role a few years ago, but the plan never got off the ground. If Mongolia were to embrace YIMBYism, it would certainly be a welcome development for its Asian neighbors, and a nuclear trade agreement with the U.S. could help kick-start the country’s own power industry. Naturally, questions about proliferation risks are going to come up. And in light of the past month’s events, one can’t help but remember that the region is not exactly immune from earthquakes. “

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, U.S. government, Compton’s Encyclopedia, The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, and various books, websites and other publications.

Last updated July 2026