ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN MONGOLIA: CLIMATE CHANGE, ECOSYSTEMS, POLICIES

ENVIRONMENT OF MONGOLIA

Mongolia is — or at least was — one of the world’s most pollution free and environmentally unspoiled places on earth. In the early 1990s, the government set aside about one-eighth of the country as strictly protected and eventually plans to make 30 percent protected. Mountains near Ulaanbaatar have been protected from hunting and logging since the 12th century. The secret to Mongolia’s environmental success has mainly been a lack of people: less than 3 million of them in a country three times the size of France. Many parts of Mongolia are either untouched by humans and only visited from time to time by nomads.

However, Mongolia is not pollution free. Ulaanbaatar is sometimes engulfed in smog produced by large Soviet-built, coal-fired power plants as well as the hundred of thousands household coal-burning stoves. Some localised acid rain is produced by the same sources. Mining can be a dirty business in Mongolia. There are hundreds of mines and some of them are quite destructive. But otherwise Mongolia remains pristine. Another asset from 1n environmental point of view is its modest, relatively small economy.

Environmental issues in Mongolia include: 1) limited natural freshwater resources in some areas; 2) air pollution from the burning of soft coal by individual homes, gers (yurts), power plants, and factories and lax regulations and enforcement in Ulaanbaatar; 3) soil erosion from deforestation and overgrazing; 4) water pollution; 5) desertification; and the effects from mining. Deforestation, overgrazing, and the converting of virgin land to agricultural production increased soil erosion from wind and rain.
The policies of former Communist regimes promoted rapid urbanization and industrial growth that had negative effects on the environment. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

Douglas H. Chadwick wrote in National Geographic: “Though an admirable network of parks and reserves has been established in western Mongolia, the infrastructure to manage them is thin. "We don't have enough staff to protect their core wildlands from heavy livestock grazing, poaching, forest fires, and illegal woodcutting," explained Mantai Khavalkhan, the superintendent of four reserves in Mongolia's Altay region. [Source: Douglas H. Chadwick, National Geographic, June 2008 \~]

International environmental agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling. [Source: CIA World Factbook]

Threats to Mongolia’s Unique Ecosystems

Ulaanbatar from space

Mongolia features a variety of unique ecosystems, including alpine and upland forests, steppe grasslands, desert grazing lands, and barren deserts. These habitats are home to an extraordinary array of plant and animal life, including rare species such as the snow leopard and the Gobi brown bear. [Source: Geo-Data: The World Geographical Encyclopedia, Gale Group Inc., 2003]

Despite increasing development and resource extraction, efforts are being made to preserve Mongolia's wildlife habitats and natural terrain. More than a dozen nature reserves have been established. In 2003, about 11.5 percent of the total land area in Mongolia was protected, including six Ramsar wetland sites.

But deforestation, the overgrazing of pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up virgin land have increased soil erosion. Recent rapid and relatively unregulated growth in the mining sector for minerals such as gold, copper and coal, has become the focus of public debate. A great deal of public attention is being paid to non-transparency of the government process of awarding licenses. There are also issues with informal gold miners, who frequently illegally use mercury. [Source: Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook 2009, Gale, 2008]

Environmental Data and Rankings for Mongolia

Mongolia ranks 143rd out of 180 countries in the 2024 Environmental Performance Index, with an overall score of 37.2 out of 100. The environmental performance index ranks countries on the basis of things like maintaining and improving air and water quality, maximizing biodiversity and cooperating with other countries on environmental problems. Prepared by researchers at Yale and Columbia in cooperation with the World Economic Forum, it is based on 75 measures including the number of children with respiratory diseases, fertility rates, water quality, overfishing, emissions of greenhouses gases, and the export of sodium dioxide, a key component of acid rain. [Source: Environmental Performance Index, Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy epi.envirocenter.yale.edu]

Carbon dioxide emissions: 19.203 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from coal and metallurgical coke: 13.489 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate); from petroleum and other liquids: 5.714 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]

Methane emissions: energy: 532.2 kilotonnes (2022-2024 estimate); agriculture: 525.2 kilotonnes (2019-2021 estimate); waste: 14.2 kilotonnes (2019-2021 estimate); other: 2.9 kilotonnes (2019-2021 estimate). Particulate matter emissions: 41.3 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 estimate).

Total renewable water resources: 34.8 billion cubic meters (2022 estimate). Total water withdrawal: municipal: 45.3 million cubic meters (2022 estimate); industrial: 166.2 million cubic meters (2022 estimate); agricultural: 250.9 million cubic meters (2022 estimate).

Waste and recycling: municipal solid waste generated annually: 2.9 million tons (2024 estimate); percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 13 percent (2022 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]

Land use: agricultural land: 69 percent (2023 estimate); arable land: 0.7 percent (2023 estimate); permanent crops: 0 percent (2023 estimate); permanent pasture: 68.2 percent (2023 estimate); forest: 9.1 percent (2023 estimate); other: 21.9 percent (2023 estimate). [Source: CIA World Factbook]

Deforestation (in thousands of hectares): Forest cover in 1990: 11,492; Forest cover in 2000: 10,665; Forest cover in 2005: 10,252; Change in forest cover between 1990 and 2000; -83 Change in forest cover between 2000 and 2005 -83 [Source: Mongabay mongabay.com]

Mongolia scored of 34.2 out of 100 in Happy Planet Index (HPI) and ranked 134th out of 197 countries. Compiled by the British think-tank New Economics Foundation, the index measures people’s well-being and their impact on the environment through data on life satisfaction, life expectancy and the amount of land required to sustain the population and absorb its energy consumption.. happyplanetindex.org/countries]

Environmental Concerns in Late Soviet-Era and Early Post-Soviet Mongolia

After many years of uncritical fostering of industrial and urban growth, Mongolia's authorities became aware in the late 1980s of the environmental costs of such policies. Belated Soviet concern over the pollution of Lake Baykal encouraged Mongolian actions to preserve their counterpart Hovsgol Nuur, which is linked to Lake Baykal through the Selenge Moron. A wool-scouring plant that had been discharging wastes into Hovsgol Nuur was closed; truck traffic on the winter ice was banned; and the shipping of oil in barges on the lake was stopped. [Source: Library of Congress, June 1989 *]

Deforestation in the Hangayn Nuruu, had reduced the flow of northern Mongolia's rivers, which were polluted by runoff from the fertilized and pesticide-treated grain fields along their banks, by industrial wastes, and by untreated sewage from growing settlements. Ulaanbaatar — located in a valley — with factories and 500,000 inhabitants who depend on soft coal, had severe air pollution, especially when the air was still and cold in winter. *

Deforestation, overgrazing of pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land had resulted in increased soil erosion, both from wind and from heavy downpours of the severe thunderstorms that bring much of Mongolia's rain. In the south, the desert area of the Gobi was expanding, threatening the fragile gobi pasturelands. The government responded by founding the Ministry of Environmental Protection in 1987 and by giving increased publicity to environmental issues. *

Sheep grazing near the Bogd Khan Mountain in the 1980s; Agriculture was a critical sector of Mongolia's economy, accounting 60-90 percent of exports and 45 percent of the labor force in

Clyde E. Goulden wrote in the New York Times: “After 70 years of political isolation while associated with the former Soviet Union, Mongolia opened its borders to international visitors in 1990. Among the first people invited into the country were scientists who could help Mongolia develop conservation plans to protect its rich biodiversity and almost pristine landscape. [Source: Clyde E. Goulden, New York Times, June 27, 2011. Goulden is the director of the Institute of Mongolian Biodiversity and Ecological Studies at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. ~~]

“ In 1994, scientists from the Academy of Natural Sciences were invited to visit a large, beautiful lake in northern Mongolia, Lake Hovsgol, and to join Mongolian and Russian scientists to study its biota. The project culminated in the description of many new species and numerous scientific publications, including the first book on the lake published in English, an effort financed by the National Science Foundation Partnerships for International Research and Education. ~~ In 1998, the Mongolian government approved Lake Hovsgol National Park as its first long-term ecological research site for the monitoring of environmental changes, encouraging continued research efforts by international scientists.” ~~

Worsening Environmental Problems in Mongolia

Mongolia is often described as a "blue sky country" because of its vast grasslands, open landscapes, and generally clear skies. However, the capital, Ulaanbaatar, frequently experiences severe air pollution, particularly during the winter. Large numbers of residents living in ger districts on the city's outskirts burn inexpensive brown coal and other fuels for heating, producing thick smog that can cover the city for months. Air pollution has become one of Mongolia's most serious environmental and public health problems. [Source: William MacNamara, New York Times, December 10, 2012; “Mongolia 2015 Crime and Safety Report,” Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department of State; Andrew Jacobs, New York Times, May 19, 2010]

According to the Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), winter air quality in Ulaanbaatar is among the worst in the world. Pollution levels often reach hazardous levels because of emissions from coal-burning household stoves, power plants, boilers, and motor vehicles. Poor air quality is linked to asthma, allergies, and other respiratory illnesses. Although the government has introduced measures to reduce emissions, rapid urbanization and population growth have made it difficult to achieve major improvements. Health officials often recommend that people spending extended periods outdoors during winter wear N95-rated masks.

Environmental changes have also affected Mongolia's grasslands. Environmentalists and government officials say that economic reforms, privatization, and rising global demand for cashmere have altered traditional livestock herding patterns. Historically, sheep accounted for about 80 percent of Mongolia's small livestock herds, with goats making up the remainder. As cashmere prices increased, many herders expanded their goat herds, and in some areas goats came to outnumber sheep.

temperature change in Mongolia, 1901 to 2020.

Scientists and environmental experts argue that the growth in goat populations has contributed to pasture degradation. Goats often pull up grasses while feeding and can damage fragile vegetation with their sharp hooves. This reduces plant cover, exposes soil to erosion, and increases the risk of desertification. The degradation of grazing lands has become a major concern in parts of the Mongolian steppe.

Many herders also report that weather patterns have become less predictable. They describe winters as longer and colder, summers as drier, and storms as more intense. Some say that gentle spring rains have become less common and are increasingly replaced by heavy downpours that can cause flash floods. A World Bank study found that hundreds of rivers and lakes in Mongolia had disappeared and that plant diversity had declined by about one-third since 1997. Researchers attributed these changes to a combination of climate change and increased pressure on grasslands from expanding goat populations.

Arshad Sayed of the World Bank wrote: Mongolian herders, who wear boots with upturned toes so as not to damage the land, face the extreme forces of the very nature they have traditionally worshipped. How much of this is Mother Nature and how much is a result of the continuing environmental degradation caused by man? Mongolian elders” have blamed some environmental problems not on nature but of “our carelessness and neglect of nature...looking to the future, other questions come to mind: Can fragile ecosystems like those in Mongolia continue to bear the burden of an ever increasing livestock herd that continues to deplete pastures and threaten long run sustainability? What is the balance between allowing a traditional culture to flourish yet ensuring that modern requirements –such as good quality, access to markets, and access to health and services– are provided in good measure to all, including the far flung herder? [Source: Arshad Sayed, World Bank, January 31, 2010]

Desertification in Mongolia

Mongolia suffers from desertification which has been linked to global warming and the overgrazing of livestock. By some estimates the Gobi Desert expands by more than 10,000 square kilometers per year, threatening many villages and livestock herders.

Jane Macartney wrote in The Times of London: “The Ministry of Nature and Environment has estimated that the grassland is thinning out across 75 per cent of this vast country, two thirds the size of Western Europe, while 7 per cent is already desert. This increases the risks posed by the devastating storms, or dzuds, that can wipe out entire flocks, while falling cashmere prices, as a result of the global financial crisis, could wreak havoc.[Source: Jane Macartney, The Times of London, August 8, 2009 +++]

“David Sheehy, of the US-based International Centre for the Advancement of Pastoral Systems, said in the World Bank report: “The decline in the quality of pastureland in Mongolia is of great concern. If the current trend continues, pastureland and herds may be more vulnerable to dzud and drought.” He was clear about the cause. “The growing number of goats has been a major reason behind this but there is also the general problem of too many livestock and the added impact of climate warming.” +++

“The UN Development Fund last year began a four-year project to combat desertification and improve land management, but Mongolian officials remain anxious. They have warned that as much as 96 per cent of the country could become desert if more is not done to stem the seemingly inexorable advance of the sands. “ +++

Climate Change in Mongolia

Grid

Extremely cold winters, drought, and desertification in Mongolia have often been linked to climate change. The winter of 2009–10 was one of the harshest in decades and resulted in the deaths of about one-fifth of the country's livestock. The Mongolian government has said that declining rainfall and rising average temperatures have contributed to the drying up of rivers and springs and the reduction of snow cover. Officials also report increases in the frequency of droughts and other natural disasters. [Source: Associated Press, August 29, 2010; Nick Kirkpatrick, Washington Post, February 18, 2015; Clyde E. Goulden, New York Times, June 27, 2011; Andrew Jacobs, New York Times, May 19, 2010]

For thousands of years, Mongolia's nomadic herders have depended on the country's grasslands for their livelihoods. In recent decades, changing weather patterns have made traditional pastoral life more difficult. Dry soils, poor pasture conditions, and severe winters have led to large-scale livestock losses. At the same time, many former herders have migrated to Ulaanbaatar and other urban areas in search of new economic opportunities.

Researchers began documenting significant environmental changes in Mongolia during the early 2000s. Studies found that average temperatures in the country increased by about 2.14 degrees Celsius (3.85 degrees Fahrenheit) between the 1940s and the mid-2000s, while overall precipitation changed relatively little. Many herders report that winters have become longer and harsher, summers drier, and winds stronger. They also say that the gentle spring rains that once nourished grasslands are increasingly replaced by intense downpours that can cause flash flooding.

Environmental changes have affected Mongolia's water resources and ecosystems. A World Bank study found that hundreds of rivers and lakes had disappeared and that plant diversity had declined by about one-third since 1997. Researchers attributed these changes to a combination of climate change and increasing pressure on grasslands, including the growth of goat herds driven by demand for cashmere. The resulting pasture degradation has increased concerns about desertification across large areas of the country.

Photographer Daesung Lee highlighted these issues in his project Living Dioramas in the Mongolian Desert. He noted that about 35 percent of Mongolians still live a nomadic lifestyle and cited government figures indicating that approximately 850 lakes and 2,000 rivers and streams had dried up. According to the same estimates, about 25 percent of Mongolia's land had turned into desert over the previous 30 years, while as much as 75 percent of the country's territory was considered at risk of desertification. These environmental changes threaten a way of life that has existed on the Mongolian steppe for thousands of years.

Addressing Climate Change in Mongolia

In 2007, the Partnerships for International Research and Education–Mongolia project was launched to study environmental change in the country. The project focused on experimental research examining the effects of warming temperatures and changing precipitation patterns on the grasslands and forests of northern Mongolia. Researchers also analyzed meteorological records and interviewed nomadic herders to document their observations of environmental change and its effects on daily life. [Source: Associated Press, August 29, 2010; Nick Kirkpatrick, Washington Post, February 18, 2015; Clyde E. Goulden, New York Times, June 27, 2011; Andrew Jacobs, New York Times, May 19, 2010]

The program included a strong educational component. Undergraduate and graduate students participated in field research, while American scientists taught ecology and biodiversity courses at the National University of Mongolia. The project aimed to increase scientific understanding of environmental change and train a new generation of researchers to study its impacts.

Researchers involved in the project emphasized the importance of both mitigation and adaptation. They argued that understanding how ecosystems respond to climate change is essential for protecting water resources, food supplies, and communities. The lessons learned in Mongolia could also help other countries facing similar environmental challenges.

In 2010, the Mongolian government staged a cabinet meeting in the Gobi Desert to draw attention to climate change and desertification. Twelve government ministers traveled to Gashuunii Khooloi in South Gobi Province, about 670 kilometers (415 miles) south of Ulaanbaatar, where they held a meeting outdoors in the desert. Prime Minister Batbold Sukhbaatar said Mongolia was already experiencing the effects of climate change and pointed to recent severe winters as evidence of the country's vulnerability.

Officials selected the site because it illustrated the spread of desertification. Local authorities said that only a few years earlier the valley had supported more vegetation and contained fewer sand dunes. By 2010, shifting sands had covered much of the area. Minister of Nature, Environment and Tourism Gansukh Luumed warned that climate change was accelerating desertification and threatening the traditional lifestyle of Mongolia's herders. He stated that about 70 percent of Mongolia's land was affected by desertification.

Mongolians Fight Global Warming with Giant Ice Cube

In 2011, Russell Tepper wrote in Foreign Policy magazine: “Ulaanbaatar is funding a $730,000 ‘ice shield’ initiative to counterbalance urban heat island effect and global warming and to lighten up the city’s air conditioning bill. The experiment is sort of like a scotch on the rocks, except instead of scotch it’s Mongolia, and instead of one cube or two it’s the artificially super-frozen Tuul river. The hope is that a giant ice sheet — known as a naled — will store the winter’s cold and cool the city through the hot months to come. [Source: Russell Tepper. Foreign Policy, November 15, 2011 \~]

“At the end of November, the engineers of the Mongolian ECOS & EMI firm will begin recreating the natural naled-forming process by drilling holes through the ice covering the river Tuul. This will allow water to rise through the ice sheet in the warmer daytime temperatures and spread across its surface. Then the new layers will freeze during the nights and create an ever thickening ice shelf. \~\

“While naleds have served industrial applications before, as military bridges in North Korea or as platforms for drilling in Russia, the Ulaanbaatar climate experiment is unprecedented. But if the Tuul successfully cools down the spring and summer as it gradually melts, providing water and a hospitable microclimate, the practice may become more common in places like Mongolia where the environmental conditions are right.” \~\

Tsetsegee Munkhbayar: Asia 2007 Goldman Prize Recipient

In 2007, Tsetsegee Munkhbayar, a Mongolian environmental activist, was award the Goldman Prize, one of the world’s most prestigious environmental prizes. Munkhbayar was given the award for successfully working with government and grassroots organizations to shut down destructive mining operations along Mongolia’s scarce waterways. [Source:Goldman Environmental Prize]

According to the Goldman Environmental Prize: Munkhbayar, born into a family of semi-nomadic herdsmen, heads the Onggi River Movement (ORM), a Mongolian grassroots organization that he co-founded in 2001 to protect and restore the Onggi River. His work has led to the formation of the Mongolian Nature Protection Coalition, which brought together 11 Mongolian river movements and has had significant impact on the awareness of this issue both at the grassroots and legislative levels.

As a poor livestock herder, Munkhbayar started attending local council meetings in several villages around his home in the early 90s, representing the voices of herders on issues that affected them: land use, water access and taxation. As a result, in 1996 the local people elected him to chair the local citizens’ council, a rare occurrence for a non-elite Mongolian herdsman. As chairman, he engaged and confronted the provincial and senior government officials on community issues. Munkhbayar became increasingly concerned about the shrinking Onggi River and, with the support of the local people, successfully helped to stop destructive mining operations.

Munkhbayar believes in empowering local citizens to protect and restore the river. He has focused on increasing citizen awareness about the need to maintain natural resources. He holds seminars and workshops to educate herdsmen about their rights as citizens and about environmental issues. Prior to Munkhbayar’s work, few local citizens had been educated about environmental protection, and there were few opportunities for people to participate in shaping government policy. In just a few years, Munkhbayar and ORM have established local boards in all eight counties within the three provinces in the Onggi River Basin; recruited nearly 4,000 supporting members; and carried out information campaigns, press conferences, town hall meetings and a 470-kilometer march along the Onggi river.

Devoting all his time to working with ORM, Munkhbayar eventually convinced the government to increase and enforce mining regulations in the region and to stop damaging mining activities and begin environmental restoration. In May 2006, the Mongolian Parliament passed the Law on Minerals, which regulates mining and protect precious waterways. In addition, 35 of the 37 mining operations working in the Onggi River Basin have ceased destructive operations. Erel Mining Company (the most egregious violator) has been shut down and the Onggi River is flowing higher and farther than it has at any other time in the last two years.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: CIA World Factbook, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, U.S. government, Compton’s Encyclopedia, The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, and various books, websites and other publications.

Last updated July 2026