MUNTJACS
muntjac
Muntjac — also called barking deer and rib-faced deer — are not much larger than small dogs. They are reddish brown in color and use their small size to stay concealed in the grass. They stand about 80 centimeters (30 inches) at the shoulder, have two-tined antlers that are only about 10 centimeters (four inches) long, and make a barking noise like a dog when they get exited. There are 14 species of muntjac, all native to South and Southeast Asia.
Muntjac deer (Muntiacus) are usually solitary. They are cautious and sensitive. They often come out in the night, in early morning, or at dusk. During the daytime, they usually hide in bushes to take rests and bark when they are frightened. Barking deer have a fixed range. No matter how far away they are chased from a place, they always return to their original territory. Barking deer reproduce easily and can mate all the year round. Their gestation period is about 210 days. They give birth to one young at a time. Barking deer reach sexual maturity at the age of one year. Muntjacs live up to 17 years in the wild and 23.2 years in captivity.
Muntjacs belong to the genus Muntiacus in th family Cervidae and subfamily Cervinae. The name "muntjak," comes from the native name for small deer in the Sundanese language. Many muntjacs have a set of elongated canine teeth that protrude below their upper lip and are used for intraspecies combat. Because of the wide karyotypic (chromosome set) range of muntjacs — from 2n=6 (M. muntjak) to 2n=46 (M. reevesi) — muntjacs are of interest to scientists. M. muntjak and M. reevesi can mate and produce viable but sterile offspring, despite the strong karyotypic differences. [Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW)]
See Separate Articles: MUNTJAC SPECIES factsanddetails.com ; MUNTJACS (BARKING DEER) IN CHINA factsanddetails.com
Muntjac History, Chromosomes and Taxonomy
Muntjacs evolved in the mid or Late Pleistocene Period (129,000 to 11,700 years ago). Their elongated canines, elongated faces, small antlers, and small body size indicate that they are among the most primitive of living deer. Morphology suggests that muntjacs likely evolved from tufted deer (the only extant species of Elaphodus) and that the most primitive muntjacs were most similar to the extant Bornean yellow muntjac. It is believed ancestral deer were small, solitary, selective browsers of dense forests; more recent species are larger, more gregarious, grazers of open woodlands. Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
There has been dispute over the exact taxonomy of the genus. For a while many taxonomic references maintained that there were 11 described species and 14 described subspecies. Among those designated as subspecies were M. muntjak muntjak, M. muntjak annamensis, M. muntjak aureus, M. muntjak curvostylis, M. muntjak guangdongensis, M. muntjak malabaricus, M. muntjak mengalis, M. muntjak montanus, M. muntjak nigripes, M. muntjak vaginalis, M. muntjak yunnanensis, M. reevesi reevesi, M. reevesi jiangkouensis, and M. reevesi micrurus. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains that M. muntjak montanus and M. muntjak vaginalis are not member of their own species with M. muntjak, and should instead be classified as separate species: M. montanus and M. vaginalis. However, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) acknowledges that these specific splits rest on little evidence.
Synapomorphies (characteristics found in an ancestral species and shared by their evolutionary descendants) that diagnose muntjacs are a chromosome number of 46 at most; antlers that are at least 2 centimeters long; long pedicles that are at least seven millimeters thick, extend onto the face towards the orbital rims as thick ribs, and end halfway along the orbital rims; ears that are narrower and more pointed than those of Elaphodus; preorbital fossa (shallow, depressed area on a bone) that are smaller and less defined than those of Elaphodus; short lateral hoofs that occasionally reach 12 millimeters; and preorbital fissures that are well-developed. /=\
Muntjacs and other members of the Cervinae subfamily are of interest to geneticists because of their strange genetic history. The chromosome count of Reeves muntjacs is 2n=46, Fea’s muntjacs is 2n=14 F/13m, black muntjacs and Gongshan muntjacs is 2n=8 F/9m, and Southern red muntjacs (Indian muntjacs) is 2n=6 F/7m, the smallest known chromosome number for any mammal. The evolution from primitive to more developed Muntiacus species was rapid, with the fastest evolution occurring in Fea’s muntjacs, where two different karyotypes emerged in only 500,000 years. Taxonomists recently added a potential new genus Megamuntjacus to the subfamily Cervinae, although it is still being disputed whether or not this new species should be its own genus or should fall under the genus Muntiacus. [Source: Sara Deuling, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
Muntjac Species
muntjac
The genus Muntiacus has 14 recognized species:
Bornean yellow muntjac (Muntiacus atherodes)
Hairy-fronted muntjac or black muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons)
Fea's muntjac (Muntiacus feae)
Gongshan muntjac (Muntiacus gongshanensis)
Malabar red muntjak (Muntiacus )
Sumatran muntjac (Muntiacus montanus)
Southern red muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)
Leaf muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis)
Pu Hoat muntjac (Muntiacus puhoatensis)
Reeves's muntjac or Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)
Roosevelt's muntjac (Muntiacus rooseveltorum)
Truong Son muntjac Muntiacus truongsonensis)
Northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis)
Giant muntjac (Muntiacus vuquangensis)
[Source: Wikipedia]
Indian Muntjac (Barking Deer, Muntiacus muntjak) have a body length of one meter and a tail length of 17-21 centimeters and weigh 25-30 kilograms. Their preferred habitats are forests and bushes in low altitude mountains and hills. They eat branches, leaves, flowers, fruit, various kinds of f vegetation and crops. Their skin has traditionally been a source of leather in China. For this reason they were widely hunted in South China. In China they can be found in Southeast, South and Southwest China and are not considered threatened or endangered. [Source: Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, kepu.net.cn]
The Reeves muntjac is 75 to 95 centimeters long, not including its 17 centimeter tail, and weighs 10 to 18 kilograms. Native to eastern Asia, it has small 10-centimeter-long antlers and feeds on a wide variety of vegetation ranging from shoots, herbs and blossoms to tough grass and nuts. Males are capable of breeding year round. In fights they try to push their rivals off balance, sometimes inflicting nasty wounds with their antlers. Some Reeves muntjac have been introduced to the Netherlands and England.
Muntjac Habitat and Where They Are Found
Muntjacs are native to the eastern, southeastern, and southern Asia. Introductions of Reeves muntjac have resulted in non-native extant ranges in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Japan. Reeves muntjac is classified as an invasive species in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, and Japan and is being monitored for ecosystem risk and economic damage in the Netherlands. Reeves muntjac was also introduced to France but is now extinct there. [Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
Muntjacs live in temperate and tropical land environments and are found in a variety of habitats, including plains, hills, rugged mountains, grassland, farmlands, dense forests, open forests, evergreen areas, deciduous forests, taiga, savannas, rainforests and scrub forests. /=\
Fragmented and uncovered canopy sites are preferred for foraging, while covered canopy sites are preferred for resting and sleeping sites. Muntjacs live from sea level to 3500 meters (11,483 feet) above sea level. Reeves muntjac is a highly adaptable species, occurring in habitats that range from temperate forests with occasional snowfall to dense forests in the warm subtropical zone, which may explain it has thrived in so many places and is regarded as an invasive species.
Muntjac Characteristics and Diet
Muntjacs are small deer with head and body length ranging from 60 to 160 centimeters (23 to 63 inches), They stand 40 to 80 centimeters (16 to 31.5 inches) at shoulder. Their tail is six to 24 centimeters (2.4 to 9.5 inches) in length, and they weigh 10 to 0 kilograms (22 to 110 pounds). Their fur can be a mixture of dark brown, yellowish brown, grayish brown, or reddish brown. Some muntjacs have white or cream markings on their heads or bodies.
Sexual Dimorphism (differences between males and females) is present: Both sexes are about the same size. Their ornamentation is different. Males have antlers and females don’t. Though more pronounced in males, both sexes have elongated canine teeth protruding below the upper lip that are no longer than a few centimeters.[Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
Both sexes have bony, hair-covered pedicles (tissue that connects parts of the body) that range from 2 to 13 centimeters (0.8 to five inches) in length, and males have short antlers 2.5 to 5.2 centimeters (one to two inches) in length at the end of their pedicles. Antlers of most muntjacs have a single prong, though some are two-tined., Some species shed their antlers annually. Additionally, muntjacs have a plesiometacarpal ankle structure and marked facial elongation. The long pedicles of muntjacs may be an adaptation to minimize the energy required to regrow antlers after they are shed, as the tropics are relatively nutrient-poor. /=\
Muntjacs are primarily herbivores (eat plants or plants parts) bur are also recognized as , folivores (eat leaves) and frugivore (eat fruits). Muntjacs are generalist browsers and feed mainly on buds, leaves, grasses, shoots, flowers, herbs, forbs, ivy, bushes, bark, twigs, seeds, seed pods, and fruit. They are also concentrate selectors and prefer foods highest in nutrients and lowest in fiber.
According to Animal Diversity Web: Members of genus Muntiacus have been described as “nibblers”, preferring to eat fallen fruits. When they do browse, they are selective and only consume buds, flowers or the blades of leaves. Their morphology reflects their feeding habit; they have long tongues and wide lower incisors, both of which aid in collecting fallen fruit. This morphology can be contrasted to that of large grazers, who have large cutting incisors. Muntjacs move slowly while feeding, keeping their nose close to the ground and only moving a small distance. [Source: Deanna Gigliotti, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
Muntjac Behavior
Muntjacs are terricolous (live on the ground), diurnal (active during the daytime), nocturnal (active at night), crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk), motile (move around as opposed to being stationary), sedentary (remain in the same area), solitary and have dominance hierarchies (ranking systems or pecking orders among members of a long-term social group, where dominance status affects access to resources or mates). [Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
Petey Maxwell wrote in Animal Diversity Web: Muntjacs are solitary deer and are active all hours of the day. They have large, overlapping home ranges with no seasonal variation and are mostly found in the cores of their home range. Though muntjacs are not strictly territorial (defend an area within the home range), they do exhibit site-specific dominance. The social hierarchy is not well understood, but body mass is a good predictor of home range size. Muntjacs secrete pheromones (chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species) from their preorbital glands, scrape their hooves against the ground, and scrape bark with their lower incisors and antlers to mark their home ranges. /=\
Male muntjacs engage in intraspecific sparring and fighting. Unlike other antlered deer, muntjacs use their horns to shove opponents off balance and inflict tusk blows to the face or head with the aim puncturing the skin of the face, neck or ears. Sparring often occurs between subordinate or unequal partners and is the safer form of combat. On the other hand, fighting is dangerous and can leave both participants injured. Muntjacs exhibit a dominance display before fighting, in which they stand at least two meters apart, hold their heads high and tilted towards their opponent, open their preorbital glands, hook their tails upwards and sideways, grind their molar teeth (producing a clicking sound), and take deliberate steps towards their opponent. At this point, either a subordinate male withdraws, or the muntjacs circle briefly before dropping their antlers and lunging forward. The muntjacs meet head-on and try to push their opponent backwards. While engaged, they try to twist the other's neck with the intent of getting them off balance. When an opponent is off balance, the aggressor attempts to use his elongated canines, or tusks, to strike downward on the back of his opponent's neck. After two or three of these tusk blows, the loser runs away and is briefly chased by the winner. The reasons for sparring and fighting are not well understood. /=\
Muntjac Senses, Communication and Barking
Muntjacs sense and communicate with vision, touch, sound and chemicals usually detected by smelling. They also employ pheromones (chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species) and scent marks produced by special glands and placed so others can smell and taste them.[Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
According to Animal Diversity Web: Maybe the most distinguishing behavior of muntjacs is barking. Muntjacs bark either when they detect a nearby disturbance, or when they are acting in intraspecific subordination. Because some predators of muntjacs are ambush predators, the purpose of barking when disturbances are detected is believed to be an indication to the predator that they have been perceived and that additional stalking is futile. Barking bouts in these contexts often last a few minutes but can last up to several hours. Bouts happen more often and last longer when perceptive ability is reduced by vegetative obstructions or poor light. In subordinate contexts, barking is believed to reduce the potential for intraspecific aggressive encounters. /=\
Muntjacs bark when they sense danger but do not become alert in response to barks of other muntjacs. They also do not respond to chemical markings of predators (i.e. urine, musk, or feces). Muntjacs communicate socially via sex-specific noises during courtship, pheromonal and visual markings on their home ranges, visual dominance displays (in males), and barking in subordinate contexts. /=\
Sara Deuling wrote in Animal Diversity Web: The function of barking may be overestimated by casual observers. While it was originally thought that muntjacs used their barks to communicate with other muntjacs to communicate danger or location information, it appears that the barks of muntjacs have a more limited function than expected. Barks are primarily used in two circumstances; when predators are suspected in the environment and during social encounters when subordinate and dominant animals come into contact. The hypothesis that barks are used as a part of reproductive processes has not been substantiated. Likewise, expectations that barks were used to communicate danger to other muntjacs could not be corroborated in studies. The frequency of the barks of muntjacs prevents them from traveling any substantial distance, particularly in dense vegetation, so it is unlikely that barks evolved as a warning response. It has been hypothesized that the barking of muntjacs are actually a vocalization of inner anxiety that accompanies being hunted by predators or challenged by a dominant individual and that it has little to do with mating, defending territory, food procurement or identification of individuals. Evidence supporting this hypothesis is found in the observations of increased barking by the muntjac at dawn and dusk and in environments that have decreased visibility, such as very dense grassland environments. [Source: Sara Deuling, Animal Diversity Web (ADW)]
Muntjac Mating, Reproduction and Offspring
Muntjacs are polygynandrous (promiscuous), with both males and females having multiple partners. They engage in year-round breeding and do not have a specific breeding season. Males emit a soft buzzing sound and females whine while lying down flat and weaving their heads. It was previously thought that muntjacs were highly territorial, and that males competed for a harem of females, but recent findings showing large home-range overlap and solidarity of females suggest otherwise. [Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
Muntjacs reach sexual maturity at 6 to 12 months. Their gestation period is around seven months, and females bear often one and rarely two fawns. At birth, fawns weigh 0.5-1 kilograms ,and mothers can mate again within days of giving birth. Females are polyestrous with an estrous cycle of 14–21 days and an estrous period of two days. /=\
Muntjacs are altricial. This means that young are born relatively underdeveloped and are unable to feed or care for themselves or move independently for a period of time after birth. Parental care is provided by females.During the pre-weaning and the pre-independence stages provisioning and protecting are done by females. After birth, muntjac fawns stay hidden in heavily vegetated areas until they can travel with their mothers. They remain with their mothers for around two months, at which point they are weaned. Males are not involved in the parental care of offspring. /=\
Muntjacs, Humans and Conservation
Muntjacs are widely used for food, clothing, and traditional medicines. They greatly desired for their meat in Southeastern and Southern Asia. Muntjacs are also sought-out for scientific studies because of the wide karyotypic range across the genus. Because they do so well in captivity, they found in many zoos. On the negative side, muntjacs damage trees by tearing off bark and, especially in countries where they have been introduced, damage crops. [Source: Petey Maxwell, Animal Diversity Web (ADW) /=]
On the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List muntjacs are listed as Not Evaluated. All muntjac species for which data exists have decreasing populations, though the giant muntjac is the only species listed as critically endangered by the IUCN. Habitat destruction and hunting are the main threats to muntjac populations. Fortunately, conservation sites have been identified for all muntjac species. The two most threatened species, giant muntjac and black muntjac crinifrons, are internationally managed and their trade is controlled. /=\
Muntjacs are prey to many of large predators in eastern, southeastern, and southern Asia, including golden jackals, crocodiles, dholes, leopards, tigers, and pythons. Muntjacs bark to indicate to ambush predators that they have been perceived and that additional stalking is futile. Muntjacs also yap and expose their rump patch while fleeing to surprise predators. Some species of muntjac flee from predators on well maintained trails and hide in dense undergrowth.
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Text Sources: Animal Diversity Web animaldiversity.org ; National Geographic, Live Science, Natural History magazine, David Attenborough books, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Discover magazine, The New Yorker, Time, BBC, CNN, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Wikipedia, The Guardian, Top Secret Animal Attack Files website and various books and other publications.
Last updated January 2025