SILK ROADS SITES IN TURKMENISTAN

Turkmenistan is rich in ruined cities and settlements that were once stops on the trade routes of the Silk Road. These including the ancient and medieval settlement of Nisa, Annau, Abiverd, Namazga-depe, Altyn -depe near Ashgabat; Meshed-Mesrian in Dekhistan, Parau near Kizyl-Arvat, Shakhrislam in Bakhardok area, Serakhs, ancient Merv, Margush, Amul near Mary and Turkmenabad and Konya-Urgench, Shakhsenem near Dashgouz.

The ancient Turkmen city of Merv (Mary) used to be the so-called Gate to Central Asia. It was especially important in terms of trade and politics in the 9th – 10th centuries. From Merv the travelers proceeded to Amul (Chardzhou, Turkmenistan) and further to Bukhara and then to Samarkand. From Merv in the other direction travelers and caravans made their way westward towards the Caspian Sea or southward into present-day Iran.

Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010 According to a report submitted to UNESCO: “The integrity of the nominated Silk Roads Cultural Route serial property is related to the presence of all the attributes necessary to express its Outstanding Universal Value. The aim is to include in the overall property, after a number of extensions of the initial nomination, attributes that reflect fully the scope of the extensive cultural route, in particular its infrastructure, including caravansaries, forts, bridges, irrigation, agriculture and way markings, its production sites, related to the production of high value trade goods such a metal mining and metal working, and the outstanding outputs of the longdistance, profitable trade over almost two millennia, in particular cities, towns and sacred sites and their associations with the exchange of knowledge in the fields of science, technology, religion, and arts and architecture.” [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

Silk Road

According to a report submitted to UNESCO: “Beginning its existence from the 2nd century B.C. and till the end of 15th century of A.D. this network of roads starting from Chan’an (modern Xian) and spreading from East Asia to Mediterranean to West and Southwest and down to Indian subcontinent, was contributing and creating conditions for intercontinental trade. [Source: UNESCO]

“In its turnover there were cultural and material values of different nations and countries. Chinese silk was one of the most valuable goods, but also there were many other goods distributed by these roads: precious metals and stones, ceramics, perfumery, incense and spices, goods made of cotton and wool, glass, wine, amber, carpets and thoroughbred horses. This trade, connecting various civilizations, existed during centuries and was supported by system of caravanserais, commercial centers, trading towns and fortresses extending for more than 10 thousand kilometers, which probably makes the most long cultural route in the history of humanity.

“However, The Silk Road transported not only goods.The Silk Road transported Buddhism, Judaism, Islam and Christianity, Zoroastrism and Manichaeism. Scientific and technological achievements also spread by this route, for example such ones from China: paper, powder, magnetic compass and porcelain, whereas engineering achievements (particularly, bridge construction) and growing of cotton, cultivation of grape vine were spread from Central Asia, Middle East, Mediterranean and West. The exchange of medical knowledge and medicine also was happening. The same road went diplomatic missions, establishing international contacts.”

Silk Road Routes in Turkmenistan

ROUTE I: AMUL - MERV: 1) Amul, Lebap velayat, At the outskirts of the modern Turkmenabat city 2) Akcha-gala, Bayramaly etrap, Mary velayat. Approximately 8 kilometers to the northeast of Merv, at the Akcha-gala deserted place: 3) Geok-Gumbez (3 medieval mausolea), Sakarchaga etrap, Mary velayat, At the Geok-Gumbez deserted place, 70 kilometers north of Merv [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

ROUTE II: MERV - KHOREZM: 1) Chilburj, Bayramaly etrap, Mary velayat, 20 kilometers to the northwest of Merv: 2) Gyobekly, Garagum etrap, Mary velayat, 32 kilometers to the northwest of Merv; 3) Khurmuzfarra (Uly Kishman), Garagum etrap, Mary velayat, About 31 kilometers the north of Merv; 4) Gurtly-depe (medieval Bashan), Bayramaly etrap, Mary velayat, approximately 25 kilometers northwards from Ancient Merv; 5) Odemerghen-gala (rabat Suran), Bayramaly etrap, Mary velayat, about 100 kilometers to the north of Bayramaly city.

ROUTE III: MERV - HERAT: 1) Talkhatan-baba (mosque), Iolotan etrap, Mary velayat, 30 kilometers to the west of Merv; 2) Ekedeshik, Tahtabazar etrap, Mary velayat, In the south of Turkmenistan, near the etrap centre of Tagtabazar

ROUTE IV: AMUL - KHOREZM: 1) Dargan urban site, Birata etrap, Lebap velayat, 4.5 kilometers to the southeast of the Birata etrap (regional) center; 2) Dayakhatyn caravanserai, Lebap velayat, 173 kilometers northwards from Turkmenabat city, near the Khanabad railway station

ROUTE V: AMUL - ZEMM (KERKI); 1) Astana-Baba (medival Maimarg):, 1) Alamberdar mausoleum and, 2) Astana-Baba architectural complex, Atamyrat etrap, Lebap velayat, 12 kilometers to the northwest of the town of Atamyrat;

ROUTE VI: MERV - SARAKHS; 1) Dashrabat (Dandanakan), Mary etrap, Mary velayat, 35 kilometers to the southwest of Mary city; 2) Old Sarakhs (urban site and Abul-Fazl mausoleum), Sarakhs etrap, Akhal velayat, In the upper reaches of Tejen river; 3) Mele-Hairam temple complex, Sarakhs etrap, Akhal velayat, About 15 kilometers eastwards from the town of Sarakhs

ROUTE VII: SARAKHS - HERAT: 1) Pulkhatyn bridge, Sarakhs etrap, Akhal velayat, 70 kilometers to the south of the town of Sarakhs; 2) Injirli urban site, Sarakhs etrap, Akhal velayat, 42 kilometers northwest-westwards from the Akrabat settlement (Badkhyz)

ROUTE VIII: SARAKHS - ABIVERD: 1) Meana-Baba architectural complex, Kaka etrap, Akhal velayat, 217 kilometers to the east of Ashgabat city; 2) Kyone Kaka, Kaka etrap, Akhal velayat, At the northeastern border of Kaka settlement; 3) Abiverd, Kaka etrap, Akhal velayat, Westwards from Kaka

ROUTE IX: ABIVERD - NISA: 1) Anau urban site and ruins of the mosque of Said Jamal-ad-Din, Akbugdai etrap, Akhal velayat, 12 kilometers eastwards from the Ashgabat city

ROUTE X: NISA - DEKHISTAN: 1) Durun and Ak Ymam mausoleum, Bakharly etrap, Akhal velayat, 5-6 kilometers to the east of the town of Bakharly; 2) a) Dekhistan (Mashat-Misrian), b) Mashat-ata mosque-mausoleum (Shir-Kabir),, c) group of medieval mausolea at Mashat-ata cemetery, Etrek etrap Balkan velayat, 90 kilometers to the northwest of the town of Etrek and 22 kilometers to the northwest of Madau settlement

ROUTE XI: DEKHISTAN - KHOREZM; 1) Ygdy gala, Serdar etrap, Balkan velayat, 150 kilometers to the north of the town of Serdar; 2) a) Shakhsenem (medieval Suvburun),, b) Shakhsenem, suburb garden, Akdepe etrap, Dashoguz velayat, 90 kilometers to the southwest of the town of Kene Urgench; 3) Diyarbekir, Gubadag etrap, Dashoguz velayat, Approximately 90 kilometers to the west of the Dashoguz city; 4) Yzmykshir fortress (mediaval Zamakhshar), Tagta etrap, Dashoguz velayat, Approximately 30 kilometers to the southwest of the Dashoguz city; 5) Devkesen (medieval Vazir), Turkmenbashi etrap, Dashoguz velayat, 60 kilometers to west of the town of Kene Urgench.

Khorezm and Konye-Urgench

Konye-Urgench (near the Uzbekistan border, 100 kilometers northeast of Dashoguz, 400 kilometers north of Ashgabat and 45 kilometers from Nukus) was the capital of Khorezm empire and was a remote outpost on a branch of the Silk Road. . Founded around 1000 B.C. and located on the Amu-Darya Delta, where the Kara-kum and Kyzylkum deserts meet, it was ruled by Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks and reached its height in the 12th century under the Seljuk shahs of the Khorezm empire, which encompassed much of northern Turkmenistan and southern Uzbekistan.

Konye-Urgench is similar to Khiva but less well restored and less like a museum piece and much more empty than Bukhara and Samarkand because it is harder to get to. There are ancient mosques, minarets, mausoleum, madrasahs, and homes. Few modern structures obstruct the view. .Modern Konye-Urgench is a small town surrounded by state cotton farms.

Kunya-Urgench was named a World Heritage Site in 2005. According to UNESCO: “Kunya-Urgench is located in the territory of Dashoguz velayat of Turkmenistan. It is situated in the northwestern Turkmenistan, on the left bank of the Amu-Daria River. Urgench was the capital of the Khorezm region, which was part of the Achaemenid Empire. The old town area contains series of monuments mainly from the 11th to 16th centuries. This area has remained a vast deserted land with some remains of ancient fortified settlements, including a mosque, the gates of a caravanserai, fortresses, mausoleums and a 60-meter high minaret. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site, 2005]

“On the sample of Kunya-Urgench monuments one can see all variety of methods and décor of Islamic architecture of Central Asia. There are constructions from adobe and burned bricks, plain unicameral dome constructions up-going to ancient chartak and buildings with complicated compositions, sometimes with long history of development, repair and reconstruction. These monuments also demonstrate the evolution of methods of treatment of inner surface of domes from cellular sails to stalactite those times called “muqarnas” and brought to the highest perfection by local masters. The best monuments of this city are distinguished by high degree of decorativeness. They provide prominent examples of classical arabesques in monochrome terra-cotta and bright colorfulness of enamel. The monuments testify to outstanding achievements in architecture and craftsmanship whose influence reached Iran and Afghanistan, and later the architecture of the Mogul Empire of 16th-century India. The Islamic sacred objects concentrated in this city are exceptionally popular places for pilgrims and serve attractive objects for the international tourism.

Amul on the Amul-Merv Silk Road Route

Amul (outskirts of Turkmenabat city) is one of the Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan that was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: Amul is the ancient and medieval site at the outskirts of the modern Turkmenabat city. The most ancient period of occupation refers to the I-IV centuries A.D. At that time it occupied the area of about 50 hectares and was a part of Kushanian kingdom. Srating from the 4th century A.D. the period of crisis is observed. After Arabian conquest Amul was revived and by the 9th century became one of the largest centres of international trade which promoted appreciable increase of the town. [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

“Amul, the capital of Middle Amudarya region, was an important transit point on the Great Silk Road. Here there were crossed two international routes - land and river ones. The land one led from Merv to Bukhara and China. Another land way led to the north, to Khorezm. The second route was Amudarya itself by which the goods from India through Afghanistan had been delivered. According to archaeological data Amul of that period consisted of shakhristan inside of which there was a citadel (ark), and outer town with 3 gates: northern, southern and eastern ones. In 1220 Amul was destroyed by Mongols. The next significant stage of its life started in the 15th century when the town had been called already Charjui. The town plan of that period survived practically till 60-ies of the 20th century

Akcha-Kala on the Amul-Merv Silk Road Route

Akcha-Kala (8 kilometers the northeast of Merv) is one of the Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan that was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: Akcha-kala caravanserai (second half of the11th century) situated on the ancient road from Merv to Amul, approximately 8 kilometers to the northeast of Merv. This lonely station is remarkable for its dimensions (150x80 meters) as well as for architecture. Its blank outer walls of pakhsa are shaped with goffers of unusual form: two semicircular quarter pillars are divided by flat blade with a joint slit in the middle. At the corners of outer walls there are diagonally located quadrate towers. On the main façade there is a massive peshtak with a lanced niche. The ceilings of the rooms were domed. [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

Akcha-kala station had been not mentioned in the travel books of the 9th-10th centuries since it was shaped as a large caravanserai just in the11th century In 1952 Akcha-kala was investigated by the YuTAKE (M.E.Masson, G.A.Pugachenkova) in archaeological and topographical respects. The Akcha-kala appearance resembles the caravanserai of Rabat-i-Malik between Bukhara and Samarkand, the most monumental in the Middle Asia and Rabati-Sharaf constructed on the road from Merv to Nishapur (Iran).

Akcha-kala brightly illustrates the local planning type of this structure usual for the medieval East. Such lay-out is found neither in the Near Eastern architecture nor in Maverannakhr. But it was enough wide-spread in Khorasan where the most characteristic inn type for this territory was formed by the end of the11th century The lay out scheme of these rectangular or square but always symmetrical structures includes the courtyard along its perimeter surrounded with the rooms for guests, storehouses, open sheds for pack animals and forage. Sometimes a separate service courtyard was made for animals and forage as in caravanserai of Akcha-kala. Now Akcha-kala is perhaps the only survived example of caravanserais with two-part lay-out the analogy of which give just the caravanserais of Mansaf situated on the way from Merv to Amul (at present it does not exist)

Geok-Gumbez Mausolea on the Amul-Merv Silk Road Route

Geok-Gumbez (70 kilometers north of Merv) is comprised of three medieval mausolea. It is one of the Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan that was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: The three medieval mausolea (13th-14th centuries) “make the ensemble of buildings stretched in line. The largest of them has on the main façade a peshtak with a lancet arch; the other facades are formed by narrow wall niches. Dome is based on the bay pendentives. Outside, the dome was faced with the blue glazed bricks fallen down later. The second mausoleum has kept only a part of its walls and the portal analogical to the previous one; the third mausoleum has preserved a small peshtak added to the cube-shaped bulk and a burial vault. [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

In writing sources the Geok-Gumbez ("Blue Dome") is mentioned just in the 15th century in the connection with the events of fight (struggle with, for, against, conflict between) of 1456 between Mirza-Sanjar and Timurid ruler Khusein ibn Mansur ibn Baikara. In 1951 these monuments (until that time unstudied) were investigated by the YuTAKE.

The three mausolea in the Geok-Gumbez represent the traditional type of one-chambered portal-and-dome shrine of the Northern Khorasan architectural school. Here it is possible to trace the process of a new architectural type formation when the centric tomb of XI-12th centuries gave place to the portal-and-dome mausoleum with emphasized significance of monumental peshtak. The main Geok-Gumbez mausoleum reflects keeping local traditional methods in the architecture of 13th-14th centuries and, at the same time, emergence of new architectural forms. Some constructional details typical for Merv architecture, for example, method of the tromp construction (like in the mausoleum of ibn-Zeid and the mosque of Talkhatan-baba) connect it with the foregoing period. The innovation is a strongly developed peshtak which not simply protrudes on main façade (like in the mausoleum of Abu-Said in Mekhne) but represents the principal and sole façade form. The first mausoleum of Geok-Gumbez develops the same theme of one-chambered portal-and-dome shrine which is elaborated in the 14th century in Meverannakhr (early group of the mausolea of Shakhi-Zind in Samarkand).

Chilburj on the Merv-Khorezm Route

Chilburj (20 kilometers to the northwest of Merv) is one of the Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan that was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: Its historic name is not established. The fortress represents an irregular rectangle in plan (230-260x200 meters). Its walls are thickly flanked with protruded rectangular goffered towers. The fortress corners are strengthened with powerful bastions. Sections between towers have in-wall passageways with the niches for archers. Towers and inter-tower ways are densely covered with arrow-shaped loopholes, mostly false. Chilburj had two gates (northern and southern ones) through which the central street crossed the town. Initially this was a military fortress therefore its yard was not built up; just in the centre a trace of some construction survived where the fire was kept on. [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

The fortress was founded in the Late Parthian time (I1st-2ndI centuriesA.D.). In the Late Sasanian period (V-7th centuries), Chilburj was a flourishing town with the dense building of shakhristan and rabad; its development was broken off by the Arabian invasion. The third stage of the town life refers to the period of the developed Middle Ages (X-12th centuries) when it was used for caravans' halting place; in the X century a small juma-mosque (34x32 meters) was built nearby. As a caravanserai Chilburj existed up to the Mongol invasion whereupon it was abandoned completely.

The Late Parthian fortress Chilburj continues traditions of the Early Parthian period which are fully reflected in the fortress of Durnaly (1st-2nd centuries A.D.). Keeping traditional for the Parthian architecture the wall type with numerous towers of rectangular form cut through with embrasures (like in Durnaly). The principle of gate fortification typical for the Middle Asian antiquity, Chilburj provides the earliest in Middle Asia example of using the wall goffering usual for the 7th-10th centuries architecture.

Gebekly on the Merv-Khorezm Route

Gyobekly (32 kilometers to the northwest of Merv) is one of the Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan that was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: Gebekly is the ancient town site in the centre of Merv oasis situated 32 kilometers to the northwest of Gyaur-kala. It represents a square (88x88 meters) in plan. Ruins tower 12-13 meters high above the locality. In the centre of the site there is a large building of the Parthian Period - the House of Ruler. Living and ceremonial premises occupied its centre and the system of bypass corridors was arranged along the periphery. The monument was surrounded by fortress walls along its perimeter. Gate was in the middle of the southern wall. There are no traces of building around the fortress. [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

For the first time Gebekly-depe was marked by the American expedition in Turkestan (at the beginning of the 20th century). Archaeological explorations carried out by the joint Russian-Turkmen expedition (G.A.Koshelenko, A.Gubaev) during 1980-s and 1997-2001 have allowed us to determine 4 principal periods of the site occupation: 1) time of its erection - before I century A.D. (Yaz-III period); 2) Parthian time - 1st-2nd centuries A.D.; 3) the early Sasanian time - 3rd century A.D.; 4) 4th century A.D.

The fortress walls of Gebekly-depe find their parallels in the fortifications of the later fortress - Chilburj (in-wall corridor, rectangular towers divided in segments etc.). The most sensational finds from Gebekly-depe are over 1000 Parthian bulls - clay articles of different forms with the impressions of seals which served for sealing the writing documents, vessels, doors etc. Depictions on the impressions include more than 30 plots. These plots follow different iconographic traditions: local ancient Margianian (various geometric ornaments) etc.

Khurmuzfarra (Uly Kishman) on the Merv-Khorezm Route

Khurmuzfarra (Uly Kishman, 31 kilometers north of Merv) is one of the Silk Roads Sites in Turkmenistan that was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: The ruins of Khurmuzfarra are situated approximately 31 kilometers to the north of Merv. This town served the important basic station on the trade route from Merv to Khorezm for centuries.

The caravanserai of Khurmuzfarra (9th-10th centuries), built of mud brick, had the unique lay-out. It was very vast. Here there were only 8 rooms, all other space was occupied by three-, two- and one-row stoia (a long gallery-portico surrounding the yard from the west, south and east). Each section of the stoia was covered with a dome based on massive supporting arches over-thrown between the pillars of large section (1.3x1.3 meters). Initially, there were 57 such domes, after rebuilding of caravanserai - 77. The rooms were destined for people, dome-arched porticos served for luggage and for animals during bad weather. The main entrance, shaped by two semicircular towers, was located from the south. There were also ancillary entrances-wicket-gates in the northern and eastern walls. [Source: Embassy of Turkmenistan to France, UNESCO]

The first fragmentary references about Khurmuzfarra appear among several Muslim authors describing the history of the conquest of Khorasan by Arabs; then some geographic works and dictionaries of the X century (Istakhri and Makdisi) and of succeeding centuries up to the 15th century (Idrisi, Samani - 12th century, Yakut - 13th century, Khamdallah Kazvini - 14th century and Hafizi Abru - 15th century) contain some information of the town. In addition to Khurmuzfarra there are found other names of this point such as Musfari, Masfara, Safari or Safri, Uly Kishman. In 1946 the Ashgabat historian and ethnographer G.I.Karpov indentified first the medieval Khurmuzfarra with the ruins of Uly Kishman site. In the archaeological respect Uly Kishman was explored by the YuTAKE in the 1946, 1950 and the 1960s.

Khurmuzfarra caravanserai is very original in architectural respect and does not resemble the Middle Eastern caravanserais of that time. This was an inn for caravans passed to Khorezm through the desert, a large trading station where enterprising merchants had often made wholesale dealings. Therefore, it has a little number of living khujras and many sheds for animals and packages. Before the11th century the functions of caravanserais were implemented by an ordinary dwelling keshk, surrounded by with well-defended yard. Caravanserai in Khurmuzfarra shows a different lay out scheme of inn which was finally formed in Khorasan by the end of the11th century The plan of these rectangular or square but almost

Nisa

Nisa (15 kilometers west of Ashgabat) is an ancient city that was capital of the Parthian Kingdom between the 3rd century B.C. and the A.D. 3rd century. The Parthians were the great rivals of the Romans in the east. Nisa remained active until is was razed by the Mongols. Situated on a grassy plateau in the foothills of the Kopet Dag, it once contained a fortress with 43 towers, a royal palace and some temples. All that remains now are some mounds, broken up by excavation pits, and the mud-brick remains of two Zoroastrian temples, kitchens, a treasury. a courtyard house with a wine cellar and circular chamber believed to have been a ritual area of a Zoroastrian temple. Artifacts unearthed at the site are now in the Turkmenistan National Museum.

The Parthian Fortresses of Nisa were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007. According to UNESCO: “The Parthian Fortresses of Nisa consist of two tells of Old and New Nisa, indicating the site of one of the earliest and most important cities of the Parthian Empire, a major power from the mid 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century AD. They conserve the unexcavated remains of an ancient civilization which skilfully combined its own traditional cultural elements with those of the Hellenistic and Roman west. Archaeological excavations in two parts of the site have revealed richly decorated architecture, illustrative of domestic, state and religious functions. Situated at the crossroads of important commercial and strategic axes, this powerful empire formed a barrier to Roman expansion while serving as an important communication and trading centre between east and west, north and south. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site, 2007]

Nisa was the capital of the Parthian Empire, which dominated this region of central Asia from the mid 3rd century BCE to the early 3rd century CE. As such it formed a barrier to Roman expansion, whilst at the same time serving as an important communications and trading centre, at the crossroads of north-south and east-west routes. Its political and economic power is well illustrated by the surviving remains, which underline the interaction between central Asian and Mediterranean cultures.

Dehistan-Mishrian

Dehistan (30 kilometers east of the Caspian Sea, 140 kilometers south of Balkanabat, 280 kilometers southeast of Turkmenbashi, 560 kilometers west from Ashgabat) is a ruined Silk Road city that was at its height in the 11th century, survived the Mongol invasion and thrived until 15th century when an ecological disaster cut off its supplies of water and made the city into a ghost town. There isn’t much left except for mud-brick foundations and the remains of a minaret. About seven kilometers away is a cemetery with some ruined mausoleums and Turkmenistan’s oldest mosque.

Dehistan-Mishrian was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1998. According to a report submitted to UNESCO: Dehistan/Mishrian was the principal city of Western Turkmenistan from the 10th to the 14th centuries. Located on a major caravan route from Gurgan in northern Iran to Khorezm, its finest buildings were constructed by the Khorezmshahs. Major surviving monuments include parts of a minaret built by Abu Bini Ziyard in 1004/5 and another built 200 years later, which formed part of the mosque of Muhammad Khorezmshah: this still has a superbly decorated portal, 18 meters. high. The city was strongly fortified with a double row of walls and occupied c. 2 square kilometers: it declined and was abandoned in the 1 5th century. [Source: Ministry of Culture, Government of Republic of Turkmenistan UNESCO]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Turkmenistan tourism sites, Turkmenistan government websites, UNESCO, Wikipedia, Wikitravel, Lonely Planet guides, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, National Geographic, The New Yorker, Bloomberg, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Japan News, Yomiuri Shimbun, Compton's Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Updated in August 2020